Reliability study of package-on-package stacking assembly under vibration loading

The vibration reliability of lead-free solder joints of Package-on-Package (PoP) is investigated by experimental tests and finite element method (FEM) simulations in this paper. A 14 × 14 mm two-tier PoP module was selected for this study. The natural frequencies and modes were determined by FEM and verified by experimental tests. The printed circuit board (PCB) assemblies are tested under harmonic vibration. Vibration test results show that the vibration reliability of top package is better than the bottom package, and the outermost corner solder joints of the bottom package are the critical solder joints for the PoP under vibration loading. The stress characteristics of solder joints obtained by FEM are well correlated with the experimental results. Failure mechanism analysis indicates that the bottom solder joints become the most vulnerable part of the PoP under vibration due to the bigger relative displacements between the PCB and the bottom package. The micro-structural analysis indicates that cracks usually originate in the bottleneck position of the solder balls, extend within bulk solder and then propagate along the interface between the IMC layer and the bulk solder. The influence of bottom solder joints standoff for vibration reliability was analyzed by FEM as well. Results show that the higher the bottom solder joints' standoff, the more difficult the failure for the PoP assembly.     

High-cycle fatigue life prediction for Pb-free BGA under random vibration loading

This paper develops an assessment methodology based on vibration tests and finite element analysis (FEA) to predict the fatigue life of electronic components under random vibration loading. A specially designed PCB with ball grid array (BGA) packages attached was mounted to the electro-dynamic shaker and was subjected to different vibration excitations at the supports. An event detector monitored the resistance of the daisy chained circuits and recorded the failure time of the electronic components. In addition accelerometers and dynamic signal analyzer were utilized to record the time-history data of both the shaker input and the PCB’s response.The finite element based fatigue life prediction approach consists of two steps: The first step aims at characterizing fatigue properties of the Pb-free solder joint (SAC305/SAC405) by generating the S-N (stress-life) curve. A sinusoidal vibration over a limited frequency band centered at the test vehicle’s 1st natural frequency was applied and the time to failure was recorded. The resulting stress was obtained from the FE model through harmonic analysis in ANSYS. Spectrum analysis specified for random vibration, as the second step, was performed numerically in ANSYS to obtain the response power spectral density (PSD) of the critical solder joint. The volume averaged Von Mises stress PSD was calculated from the FEA results and then was transformed into time-history data through inverse Fourier transform. The rainflow cycle counting was used to estimate cumulative damages of the critical solder joint. The calculated fatigue life based on the rainflow cycle counting results, the S-N curve, and the modified Miner’s rule agreed with actual testing results.     

Fatigue life prediction model for accelerated testing of electronic components under non-Gaussian random vibration excitations

In this paper, a novel fatigue life prediction model for electronic components under non-Gaussian random vibration excitations is proposed based on random vibration and fatigue theory. This mathematical model comprehensively associates the vibration fatigue life of electronic components, the characteristics of vibration excitations (such as the root mean square, power spectral density, spectral bandwidth and kurtosis value) and the dynamic transfer characteristics of an electronic assembly (such as the natural frequency and damping ratio) together. Meanwhile a detailed solving method was also presented for determining the unknown parameters in the model. To verify the model, a series of random vibration fatigue accelerated tests were conducted. The results obtained show that the predicted fatigue life based on the model agreed with actual testing. This fatigue life prediction model can be used for the quantitative design of vibration fatigue accelerated testing, which can be applied to assess the long-term fatigue reliability of electronic components under Gaussian and non-Gaussian random vibration environments.     

热循环与随机振动加载下电路板的寿命预测

随着电子封装业的快速发展,产品可靠性成为重要研究课题之一,寿命作为可靠性的衡量指标具有参考价值。利用ANSYS,结合有限元理论与寿命预测模型,在热循环与随机振动加载下对装配有典型封装结构的电路板进行响应分析和寿命预测。采用Anand统一本构模型,根据体积加权平均法,选择基于能量的Darveaux模型预测热疲劳寿命。根据Manson经验高周疲劳关系式,结合Miner准则,选择基于高斯分布的Steinberg模型预测振动疲劳寿命。采用线性损伤叠加法得到热与振动同时加载下结构的寿命。结果表明:焊点与Cu引线的连接层易发生破坏。焊点易出现热疲劳失效,Cu引线易出现振动疲劳失效。     

振动载荷下特种设备中电路板级焊点疲劳寿命预测

基于内聚力模型,提出一种用于振动载荷下特种设备中电路板级焊点疲劳寿命预测的介观尺度模型。将单调载荷与振动周期载荷相结合,建立焊点累积损伤参数来表征焊点的剩余疲劳寿命,利用焊点损伤累积率来表征焊点损伤演化规律。以Sn3.0Ag0.5Cu(SAC305)细间距无铅焊点为例分析了模型参数确定方法,并通过振幅为5 mm与10 mm的定频振动试验对模型的预测精度进行了验证,寿命预测结果误差小于10%。由于模型参数为焊点钎料累积塑性应变的固有函数,与焊点尺寸与几何形态无关,通过小样本试验,数据一经确定即可应用于同种钎料不同尺寸焊点在不同振动等级下的疲劳寿命预测,节约了时间与试验成本,该模型能为特种设备中的电子组件提供一种评估板级焊点疲劳寿命的简洁、实用方法。     

随机振动下板级组件焊点可靠性研究进展

针对板级组件焊点在随机振动下的可靠性问题,对与之相关的实验研究成果和仿真结果进行了综述。首先介绍了球栅阵列(BGA)封装芯片焊点失效的位置,BGA焊点的材料以及BGA参数和印制电路板(PCB)参数对焊点可靠性的分析,并介绍了疲劳寿命预测方法和子模型法、特殊结构的随机振动分析。最后,提出了随机振动情况下的BGA结构的优化方法。     

Prognostics implementation of electronics under vibration loading

In this paper, a methodology is developed for monitoring, recording, and analyzing the life-cycle vibration loads for remaining-life prognostics of electronics. The responses of printed circuit boards to vibration loading in terms of bending curvature are monitored using strain gauges. An analytical model calibrated by finite element analysis is developed to calculate the strain at interconnects using the measured response. The interconnect strain values are then used in a vibration failure fatigue model for damage assessment. Damage estimates are accumulated using Miner’s rule after every mission and then used to predict the life consumed and remaining-life. The methodology has been demonstrated for remaining-life prognostics of a printed circuit board. The result has also been verified by the real-time to failure of the components by checking the components’ resistance data.     

Fatigue of damascene copper lines under cyclic electrical loading

Fatigue in damascene copper lines has been investigated by using alternating currents to generate cyclic temperatures and stresses/strains. Interconnects using beyond 65 nm node design rules and materials have been studied. We demonstrate here that cyclic thermal strains lead to Cu or Cu/Co-based cap surface modification and open circuits in Cu lines during the application of an alternating electrical current. We underline that the narrower the copper lines are, the more reliable they are and the major role of the cap layer to improve the Cu lines reliability.     

随机振动下不同结构参数的PCBA可靠性研究

为减小振动因素对产品失效的影响,改进PCBA组件的结构参数,提高PBGA(塑料球栅阵列)振动可靠性。采用有限元法,运用模态分析,得出结论:固支数目越多,焊点的振动可靠性越好。此外,利用随机振动模块,分析了板级振动条件下,焊点位置、焊点材料、PCB厚度、BGA焊点高度对可靠性的影响,并且利用焊点的疲劳寿命模型计算出关键焊点的疲劳寿命。结果表明:焊点最容易失效的位置位于焊点的顶角处;相比于Pb90Sn10、Sn63Pb37、Mix、SAC387这四种材料,SAC305的疲劳寿命最高;PCB的厚度和焊点的疲劳寿命成正比;焊点高度和焊点的疲劳寿命成反比。     

Probabilistic fatigue damage estimation of embedded electronic solder joints under random vibration

The stress response to random vibrations is an important factor to be taken into account in designing embedded electronic devices. Several test specifications and qualifications use the random vibrations to increase the reliability of electronic products. Fatigue damage estimation of embedded electronic solder joints has not been addressed, especially under random vibration loading. In this paper numerical random vibration analysis with finite element method of an embedded electronic device is used to estimate the stresses Power Spectral Density (PSD). These PSD of stresses are then used in different probabilistic fatigue damage approaches to estimate the reliability of the solder joints regarding the vibration fatigue damage. Two different probabilistic approaches of random fatigue are employed; the time-domain approach based on Rainflow and Monte Carlo simulations and the frequency domain approach based on spectral techniques and statistical data. However, the fatigue damage estimation depends mainly on the accurate results of the stresses PSD. Thus, this work proposes to develop the sub-modelling technique to the random vibration analysis in order to provide accurate results of the stresses PSD. Moreover, this paper discusses the advantages of the approaches listed above to estimate the fatigue damage in solder joints of an electronic component and shows the effectiveness of sub-modelling techniques in the random vibration analysis.     

Experimental study and life prediction on high cycle vibration fatigue in BGA packages

A technique and loading apparatus have been developed which allow ball grid array (BGA) packages to be visually inspected during high cycle vibration testing. This system provides controls for varying the cycling frequency and magnitude of the applied load. The failures of solder interconnects in BGA specimens were recorded by a direct visual monitoring method. Stroboscopic video was employed to freeze the motion of the vibrating solder interconnects while showing the real-time evolution of failure. In all test cases, BGA interconnect failure was observed to be the result of crack initiation and propagation along the nickel/solder interface. A primary crack developed at one edge of the interconnect and progressed stably until a secondary crack initiated from the opposite edge. The crack growth accelerated until these cracks coalesced, resulting in complete separation of the interconnect. The percentages of time spent in crack initiation, stable propagation and accelerated propagation are, on the order of 15%, 60% and 25%, respectively. Vibration tests at frequencies ranging from 50 to 100 Hz were performed and the number of cycles to failure was found to be frequency-independent in this range.Several commonly used damage mechanics and fracture mechanics fatigue life-prediction models are examined based on failure parameters computed from a nonlinear finite element analysis. It was found that while the damage models examined show large discrepancies between predicted and actual cycles-to-failure, the fracture model correlates with the test data within a factor of 1.5.     

主反射镜组件柔性环节随机振动响应分析与试验

大口径主反射镜是空间光学遥感器的关键部件,其动态结构刚度与强度直接关系到光学系统的成像质量。在结构设计初期,为保证Ф750 mm口径主反射镜组件在动力学载荷作用下不发生破坏,对其进行了随机振动下的峰值应力分析与试验。首先,论述了空间光学遥感器经历的动力学环境条件,并阐述了随机振动响应的峰值等效原则;之后建立了主镜组件的有限元模型,进行了基于上述准则的动力学仿真分析;最后,对主镜组件力学模拟件进行了动力学环境试验与应变的动态采集分析。分析与试验结果表明:柔性环节在X向、Y向、Z向随机振动激励下响应的峰值应力分别为102.3MPa、99.5 MPa、104.3 MPa,与仿真结果最大相对误差为10.8%。试验结果验证了上述分析的准确性,说明主镜组件柔性环节设计可靠,安全系数为2.07,满足使用要求。     

Effect of elevated temperature on PCB responses and solder interconnect reliability under vibration loading

In this paper, vibration tests are conducted to investigate the influence of temperature on PCB responses. A set of combined tests of temperature and vibration is designed to evaluate solder interconnect reliability at 25 °C, 65 °C and 105 °C. Results indicate that temperature significantly affects PCB responses, which leads to remarkable differences in vibration loading intensity. The PCB eigenfrequency shifts from 290 Hz to 276 Hz with an increase of test temperature from 25 °C to 105 °C, during which the peak strain amplitude is almost the same.Vibration reliability of solder interconnects is greatly improved with temperature rise from 25 °C to 105 °C. Mean time to failure (MTTF) of solder joint at 65 °C and 105 °C is increased by 70% and 174% respectively compared to that of solder joint at 25 °C. Temperature dominates crack propagation path of solder joint during vibration test. Crack propagation path is changed from the area between intermetallic compound (IMC) layer and Cu pad to the bulk solder with temperature increase.     

银含量对随机振动条件下无铅焊点可靠性的影响

为了探究银含量对无铅焊点在随机振动条件下的可靠性的影响,对Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu、Sn-1.0Ag-0.5Cu和Sn-0.3Ag-0.7Cu三种不同Ag含量材料的焊点做窄带范围内的随机振动疲劳实验,并对失效焊点进行分析。结果表明:三种材料焊点的失效位置基本都在靠近PCB侧,最外围焊点最容易失效,失效模式均为脆性断裂,并且随着Ag含量的降低,金属间化合物的厚度逐渐减小,焊点的疲劳寿命逐渐延长。     

PCBA结构参数与振动谱型对BGA焊点疲劳寿命的影响

为获得印制电路板组件(PCBA)的板厚、芯片布局等结构参数和随机振动谱型(功率谱密度,PSD)变化对球栅阵列(BGA)封装芯片焊点振动疲劳寿命的影响,利用HYPERMESH软件建立了带BGA封装芯片的PCBA三维有限元网格模型,并采用ANSYS软件对PCBA有限元模型进行了随机振动响应分析。结果表明,随着PCB厚度增加,BGA焊点振动疲劳寿命呈现明显提升的趋势,当PCB厚度由1.2 mm增加到2.2 mm时,BGA焊点振动疲劳寿命N由45363大幅增加到557386;合理的芯片安装间距能够明显增加焊点振动疲劳寿命,特别是当芯片安装在靠近固定约束并处于两个约束对称中间位置时;当PCBA的第一阶固有频率位于随机振动谱最大幅值对应的频率区间时,BGA焊点的振动疲劳寿命会明显降低。     

Memory-universal prediction of stationary random processes

We consider the problem of one-step-ahead prediction of a real-valued, stationary, strongly mixing random process (Xi)_i=-∞^∞. The best mean-square predictor of X₀ is its conditional mean given the entire infinite past (X_i)_i=-∞^-1. Given a sequence of observations X₁, X₂, X_N, we propose estimators for the conditional mean based on sequences of parametric models of increasing memory and of increasing dimension, for example, neural networks and Legendre polynomials. The proposed estimators select both the model memory and the model dimension, in a data-driven fashion, by minimizing certain complexity regularized least squares criteria. When the underlying predictor function has a finite memory, we establish that the proposed estimators are memory-universal: the proposed estimators, which do not know the true memory, deliver the same statistical performance (rates of integrated mean-squared error) as that delivered by estimators that know the true memory. Furthermore, when the underlying predictor function does not have a finite memory, we establish that the estimator based on Legendre polynomials is consistent     

Impact life prediction modeling of TFBGA packages under board level drop test

Reliability performance of IC packages during drop impact is critical, especially for handheld electronic products. Currently, there is no model that provides good correlation with experimental measurements of acceleration and impact life. In this paper, detailed drop tests and simulations are performed on TFBGA (thin-profile fine-pitch BGA) and VFBGA (very-thin-profile fine-pitch BGA) packages at board level using testing procedures developed in-house. The packages are susceptible to solder joint failures, induced by a combination of PCB bending and mechanical shock during impact. The critical solder ball is observed to occur at the outermost corner solder joint, and fails along the solder and PCB pad interface. Various testing parameters are studied experimentally and analytically, to understand the effects of drop height, drop orientation, number of PCB mounting screws to fixture, position of component on board, PCB bending, solder material, etc. Drop height, felt thickness, and contact conditions are used to fine-tune the shape and level of shock pulse required. Board level drop test can be better controlled, compared with system or product level test such as impact of mobile phone, which sometimes has rather unpredictable results due to higher complexity and variations in drop orientation. At the same time, dynamic simulation is performed to compare with experimental results. The model established has close values of peak acceleration and impact duration as measured in actual drop test. The failure mode and critical solder ball location predicted by modeling correlate well with testing. For the first time, an accurate life prediction model is proposed for board level drop test to estimate the number of drops to failure for a package. For the correlation cases studied, the maximum normal peeling stresses of critical solder joints correlate well with the mean impact lives measured during the drop test. The uncertainty of impact life prediction is within ±4 drops, for a typical test of 50 drops. With this new model, a failure-free state can be determined, and drop test performance of new package design can be quantified, and further enhanced through modeling. This quantitative approach is different from traditional qualitative modeling, as it provides both accurate relative and absolute impact life prediction. The relative performance of package may be different under board level drop test and thermal cycling test. Different design guidelines should be considered, depending on application and area of concern.     

Fatigue life evaluation of anisotropic conductive adhesive film joints under mechanical and hygrothermal loads

The shear fatigue lives of Anisotropic Conductive Adhesive Film (ACF) joints were evaluated experimentally and theoretically under different testing conditions. The shear fatigue tests of ACF joints were performed with different loading amplitudes. It is found that the fatigue lives of ACF joints decrease with increasing loading amplitudes and Basquin’s equation is fit to predict the fatigue lives of ACF joints. Hygrothermal aging and thermal cycling tests were conducted to investigate the shear strength and lives of ACF joints. The results show that the shear strength and lives of ACF joints decrease with increasing hygrothermal aging time, however increase firstly and then decrease with increasing thermal cycling time. The fatigue life model considering aging damage is proposed and the predictions of the fatigue life agree with the experimental results at different aging time for ACF joints.     

Nonlinear prediction of a class of random processes

This paper is concerned with the minimum mean-squared error (MMSE) nonlinear prediction of a class of random processes. A class of random processes is defined by the property that its MMSE zero-memory predictor is represented by a finite sum of separable terms. Sufficient conditions for the existence of such processes are also considered. The nonlinear predictor is restricted to be composed of a linear filter in parallel with a zero-memory nonlinearity (ZNL) preceded by a variable delay, The optimum predictor is shown to be the solution of linear integral equations with the same kernel as for the optimum linear predictor. The first step of the derivation also yields a simpler scheme which ,only requires the addition of a ZNL to the optimum linear predictor. The improvements in the MMSE of the two nonlinear systems over the linear case are compared and illustrated by a numerical example.     

Analysis of knee vibration signals using linear prediction

Clinical methods used at present for the diagnosis of cartilage pathology in the knee are invasive in nature, and carry some risks. There exists a need for the development of a safe, objective, noninvasive method for early detection, localization, and quantification of cartilage pathology in the knee. This paper investigates the possibility of developing such a method based on an analysis of vibrations produced by joint surfaces rubbing against one another during normal movement. In particular, the method of modeling by linear prediction is used for adaptive segmentation and parameterization of knee vibration signals. Dominant poles are extracted from the model system function for each segment based on their energy contributions and bandwidths. These dominant poles represent the dominant features of the signal segments in the spectral domain. Two-dimensional feature vectors are then constructed using the first dominant pole and the ratio of power in the 40-120 Hz band to the total power of the segment. The potential use of this method to distinguish between vibrations produced by normal volunteers and patients known to have cartilage pathology (chondromalacia) is discussed.