All-polyamide composites prepared by resin transfer molding

Resin transfer molding (RTM) was used to manufacture all-polyamide (all-PA) composites in which PA6 matrix was in situ formed by the anionic polymerization of ε-caprolactam (CL). Influence of molding temperature (T _M), a critical process parameter, on the structure and properties of all-PA composites was investigated using TGA, DSC, SEM, and tensile, flexural test. Increasing T _M resulted in the decrease of CL conversion and the enhancement of fiber/matrix interface bonding. By comparing the mechanical properties of all-PA composites prepared at different T _M (140–200 °C), an optimal T _M (180 °C) was found in this temperature range. As a whole, the complete consolidation of all-PA composites and the remarkable reinforcing effect of PA66 fibers on PA6 matrix were assured by low-void fraction, high-CL conversion and strong interface performance though in a wide T _M range.     

Characterization of polyurethane composites manufactured using vacuum assisted resin transfer molding

Glass fiber-reinforced polymer composites have promising applications in infrastructure, marine, and automotive industries due to their low cost, high specific stiffness/strength, durability, and corrosion resistance. Polyurethane (PU) resin system is widely used as matrix material in glass fiber-reinforced composites due to their superior mechanical behavior and higher impact strength. Glass fiber-reinforced PU composites are often manufactured using pultrusion process, due to shorter pot life of PU resin system. In this study, E-glass/PU composites are manufactured using a low-cost vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding process. A novel, one-part PU thermoset resin system with a longer pot life is adopted in this study. Tensile, flexure, and impact tests are conducted on both the thermoset PU neat resin system and E-glass/PU composites. A three-dimensional finite element model is developed in a commercial finite element code to simulate the impact behavior of E-glass/PU composite for three different energy levels. Finite element model is validated by comparing it with experimental results.     

Electrical properties of short sisal fiber reinforced polyester composites fabricated by resin transfer molding

The electrical properties of sisal fiber reinforced polyester composites fabricated by resin transfer molding (RTM) have been studied with special reference to fiber loading, frequency and temperature. The dielectric constant (ε′), loss factor (ε″), dissipation factor (tan δ) and conductivity increases with fiber content for the entire range of frequencies. The values are high for the composites having fiber content of 50 vol.%. This increment is high at low frequencies, low at medium frequencies, and very small at high frequencies. The volume resistivity varies with fiber loading at lower frequency and merges together at higher frequency. When temperature increases the dielectric constant values increases followed by a decrease after the glass transition temperature. This variation depends upon the fiber content. Finally an attempt is made to correlate the experimental value of the dielectric constant with theoretical predictions.     

三维夹芯层连织物复合材料真空辅助成型工艺影响因素

三维夹芯层连织物复合材料是由纤维连续织造呈空芯结构的织物作为增强体制备而成的新型轻质复合材料, 本文中以三维夹芯层连织物复合材料为研究对象, 发展了适用于酚醛树脂的真空辅助成型工艺方法, 重点考察了影响复合材料制造质量的关键因素。结果表明, 芯柱高度对织物的抗压缩能力与厚度回复率影响显著, 热处理有利于织物的厚度回复; 注射过程中, 树脂沿织物平面纬向渗透速率大于经向, 使用高渗透率介质层、 降低树脂黏度有助于提高树脂在层连织物中的分布均匀性。      

Interlayer self-healing and toughening of carbon fibre/epoxy composites using copolymer films

This paper presents an investigation of the combined self-healing and toughening performance of two copolymers: thermoplastic poly(ethylene-co-methyl acrylate) (EMA) and poly(ethylene-co-methacrylic acid) (EMAA). Carbon fibre composites were manufactured from unidirectional prepregs with rectangular-shaped patches being placed between composite plies. Results from double-cantilever-beam and short-beam-shear testing show that the incorporation of mendable polymers improves interlaminar fracture toughness but causes a reduction in interlaminar shear strength. The healing efficiency in terms of restoration of the interlaminate fracture energy scales linearly with the areal percentage of self-healing material. Microstructure study revealed distinct difference in the fracture surfaces of composites with EMA and EMAA, with EMA displaying extensive nano-scale porous structures in contrast to the more homogenous single phase structure from EMAA.     

新型树脂传递模塑技术

概述了传统树脂传递模塑(RTM)及在其基础上发展起来的新型RTM工艺,包括真空辅助树脂传递模塑(VARTM)、Seemann复合材料树脂浸渍模塑成型工艺(SCRIMP)和树脂膜渗透成型工艺(RFI)的成型原理、优点,并指出目前存在的缺点及解决方法.     

Analysis of vacuum bag resin transfer molding process

An analytical model is developed to analyze the resin flow through a deformable fiber preform during vacuum bag resin transfer molding (VBRTM) process. The force balance between the resin and the fiber preform is used to account for the swelling of fiber preform inside a flexible vacuum bag. Mold filling through multiple resin inlets is analyzed under different vacuum conditions. The formation of dry spots is demonstrated in the presence of residual air. Molding of a three-dimensional ship hull with lateral and longitudinal stiffeners is simulated to demonstrate the applicability of the model.     

An experimental investigation of class A surface finish of composites made by the resin transfer molding process

Achievement of high class surface finish is important to the high volume automotive industry when using the resin transfer molding (RTM) process for exterior body panels. Chemical cure shrinkage of the polyester resins has a direct impact on the surface finish of RTM molded components. Therefore, resins with low profile additives (LPA) are used to reduce cure shrinkage and improve surface quality of the composite parts. However, little is known about the behaviour of low profile resins during RTM manufacturing and their ultimate effects on the surface quality of molded plaques. In this work, the effects of controlled material and processing parameters on the pressure variations, process cycle times and ultimately on the surface quality of RTM molded components were investigated. Taguchi experimental design techniques were employed to design test matrices and an optimization analysis was performed. Test panels were manufactured using a flat plate steel mold mounted on a press. Pressure sensors were inserted in the mold cavity to monitor pressure variations during different stages of cure and at various locations in the mold cavity. It was found that a critical amount of LPA (10%) was required to push the material against the mold cavity and to compensate for the resin cure shrinkage. A significant increase in pressure was observed during the later stages of resin cure due to the LPA expansion. The pressure increase had a significant effect on the surface roughness of the test samples with higher pressures resulting in better surface finish. A cure gradient was observed for low pressure injections which significantly reduced the maximum pressure levels.     

Numerical simulation of molding-defect formation during resin transfer molding

The present study investigated a numerical simulation of molding-defect formation during resin transfer molding using boundary element method and line dynamics. The proposed method enables to simulate small molding defects by increasing the node for required position during time evolution; thereby, the method computes high-resolution flow front without being affected by the initial mesh geometry. The method was applied to the radial injection RTM with single inlet, and it was confirmed by comparison with theoretical value based on Darcy’s law that the flow advancement was computed with high accuracy. In addition, the method was also applied to the flow advancement for inclusion problem with cylinder, and four-point injection problem. The simulated flow behavior, void formation, and shrinkage agreed with the results in references. Finally, the method was compared with experiments using two-point injection problem. The computed configuration of the flow front and weld line agreed well with the experimental results.     

Repair of underground buried pipes with resin transfer molding

Repairing and replacing of worn-out underground pipes, such as sewer pipes, water-supply pipes, gas pipes, and communication cables by excavating not only cause traffic congestion but also produce large amount of waste. Also, the operation requires heavy equipments and longer operating time and high cost.

In this study, the repairing–reinforcing process of underground pipes with glass fiber fabric polymer composites using resin transfer molding (RTM) which overcomes the problems of present trenchless technologies has been developed. The developed process requires shorter operation time and lower cost with smaller and simpler operating equipments than conventional trenchless technologies. For the faultless operation, a simple method to apply pressure and vacuum to the reinforcement was developed. The resin wetting and void removal during RTM process for very large and long-composite buried pipes were experimentally investigated, and the efficient void removal method was suggested. Cure status and resin filling were monitored with a commercial dielectrometry cure monitoring system, LACOMCURE.

From the investigation, it has been found that the developed repair technology with appropriate process parameters and on-line cure monitoring has many advantages over conventional methods.     

Fabrication and properties of CNTs/carbon fabric hybrid multiscale composites processed via resin transfer molding technique

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are effective fillers/reinforcements regarding improving the properties of polymer. In the present paper, carboxylic acid functionalized CNTs were used to modify epoxy with intent to develop a nanocomposite matrix for hybrid multiscale composites combining benefits of nanoscale reinforcement with well-established fibrous composites. CNTs were dispersed in epoxy by using high energy sonication. At low contents of CNTs, hybrid multiscale composites specimens were manufactured via resin transfer molding (RTM) process. The processibility of CNTs/epoxy systems was explored with respect to their viscosity. The dispersion quality and re-agglomeration behavior of CNTs in epoxy were characterized using optical microscope. A CNTs loading of 0.025 wt% significantly improved the glass transition temperatures (Tg) of the hybrid multiscale composites. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to examine the fracture surface of the failed specimens. It is demonstrated that the addition of small amount of CNTs (0.025 wt%) to epoxy for the fabrication of multiscale carbon fabric composites via RTM route effectively improves the matrix-dominated properties of polymer based composites. Hybridization efficiency in carbon fiber reinforced composites using CNTs is found to be highly dependent on the changes in the dispersion state of CNTs in epoxy.     

热塑性颗粒-无机粒子协同增韧碳纤维增强环氧树脂复合材料

针对碳纤维增强环氧树脂(CF/EP)复合材料层间断裂韧性进行研究,通过在CF/EP复合材料层间添加四种无机纳米粒子和三种热塑性颗粒对其进行II型层间断裂韧性(G_IIC)研究,选择工艺性和增韧性效果好的两种无机纳米粒子和热塑性颗粒进行协同增韧研究。结果表明,CF/EP复合材料的G_IIC在适当的无机纳米粒子含量下都得到提高,这主要是由于无机纳米粒子在层间形成了有效吸收断裂能的微结构,纳米羟基氧化铝(AlOOH)的工艺性及增韧性等综合性能最好,AlOOH质量分数为1wt%时,CF/EP复合材料的G_IIC达到931 J/m2,提高了29.3%;热塑性颗粒中,改性聚芳醚酮颗粒(PAEK)的综合性能最好,添加10wt% PAEK,CF/EP复合材料的G_IIC可以提高32%,这是由于预制在层间的热塑性颗粒随着基体流动而得到扩散,形成了独特的跨层间连续结构,从而使裂纹扩展的阻力增加,有效提高了CF/EP复合材料的G_IIC;10wt%PAEK和1wt%AlOOH共同增韧CF/EP复合材料的G_IIC达到1 368 J/m2,相对于未增韧的CF/EP复合材料提高了90%,增韧效果比PAEK和AlOOH对CF/EP复合材料的增韧效果之和大,这表明,PAEK和AlOOH同时加入CF/EP复合材料层间,对CF/EP复合材料具有协同增韧效应。      

Investigation on the spring-in phenomenon of carbon nanofiber-glass fiber/polyester composites manufactured with vacuum assisted resin transfer molding

Process-induced residual stress arises in polymer composites as a result of mismatched resin contraction and fiber contraction during the cure stage. When a curved shell-like composite part is de-molded, the residual stress causes the spring-in phenomenon, in which the enclosed angle of the part becomes smaller than the angle of its mold. In this paper, a new approach is presented to control and reduce the spring-in angle by infusing a small amount of carbon nanofibers (CNFs) together with liquid resin into the glass fiber preform using vacuum assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM) process. The experimental results showed that the spring-in angles of the L-shaped composite specimens were effectively restrained by the CNFs. An analytical model and a 3-D FEA model were developed to predict the spring-in phenomenon and to understand the role of CNFs in reducing the spring-in angle. The models agreed with the experimental results reasonably well. Furthermore, the analytical model explains how the CNF-enhanced dimensional tolerance control is accomplished through the reductions in the matrix’s equivalent coefficient of thermal expansion and linear crosslinking shrinkage.     

Phenoxy nanocomposite carriers for delivery of nanofillers in epoxy matrix for resin transfer molding (RTM)-manufactured composites

The use of phenoxy nanocomposite films as carriers of nanofillers involving multiwalled carbon nanotubes and nanoclays is successfully demonstrated for application in epoxy carbon fibers reinforced composites (CFRC) processed by RTM. Model studies on individual nanocomposite filaments embedded in epoxy precursors show that the nanofillers are passively transported by the interdiffusion gradient during heating over distance around 800 μm. A morphology gradient is generated after reaction induced phase separation and the nanofillers end up in the epoxy, despite their initial dispersion in the phenoxy. The proof of concept is extended to CFRC panels where nanocomposite phenoxy films are prepositioned between every odd carbon layer of the preform. Carbon nanotubes are filtered by the carbon fabrics, which limits their full diffusion and that of phenoxy through the preform. This has negative consequences on fracture toughness (G_Ic)_. For nanoclay, G_Ic is rather slightly improved although the origin is not fully clear.     

碳纳米管-有机化蒙脱土多维纳米界面构筑及其对环氧树脂的增韧机制

分别采用混酸、环氧树脂（EP）和硅烷偶联剂对碳纳米管（CNTs）进行功能化处理,用十八烷基三甲基氯化铵对蒙脱土（MMT）进行有机化处理,将具有一维纳米尺度的CNTs和二维纳米尺度的有机化蒙脱土（OMMT）复合引入EP酸酐固化体系,通过溶液共混法制备纳米OMMT/EP、CNTs/EP、CNTs-OMMT/EP复合材料。使用简支梁冲击试验仪测试三种复合材料的冲击强度,并利用SEM观察纳米复合材料的冲击断面形貌。实验结果表明,当OMMT的含量为4wt%时,纳米OMMT/EP复合材料的冲击强度比未掺杂纳米组分的EP提高了16.7%。经硅烷偶联剂处理后的CNTs（Si-CNTs）能与EP基体形成良好界面,当Si-CNTs的含量为0.9wt%时,纳米Si-CNTs/EP复合材料冲击强度比未掺杂纳米组分的EP提高了84.0%。当OMMT的含量为4wt%、Si-CNTs的含量为0.9wt%时,纳米Si-CNTs-OMMT/EP复合材料的冲击强度比未掺杂纳米组分的EP提高了135.4%。管状CNTs和片层结构OMMT对EP的韧性具有协同提高作用。     

Numerical study of resin transfer molding (RTM) curing process

It is a very important phase in resin transfer molding (RTM) process that resin is cured. The result of the curing process determines the quality of a part, including mechanical properties, lifecycle of the part under high temperature and chemical properties. Therefore, it is very meaningful to discuss the curing process. In our work, the code is prepared based on unstructured mesh using divergence theorem. A case is used to verify properness of the code and the results are in good agreement with the published experiment data. In the paper, some factors of materials and numerical calculation, e.g., time step, reaction heat, the whole heat conductivity of fiber and resin and fiber initial temperature, which affect result of simulation, are emphatically investigated and carefully revealed. The conclusion shows that time step, the reaction heat and heat conductivity have an important effect on the curing process, while fiber initial temperature has very little impact. These are helpful to understand and adopt the curing process in order to produce good products.     

缝合夹层结构复合材料树脂传递模塑成型工艺充模仿真

对复合材料与金属经缝合连接形成的夹层结构板的树脂传递模塑成型（RTM）工艺进行了充模模拟研究。首先通过实验和数值计算的方法,分别获得缝合夹层结构织物和芯层孔洞的渗透率;随后,建立能够反映缝孔内流动情况的二维和三维简化模型,进行RTM充模仿真,讨论不同工艺参数对成型流动的影响;最后通过成型实验验证工艺的可行性。缝线与孔洞直径之比为0.3~0.8时,孔洞渗透率随缝线直径的增大而减小,预制体织物渗透率与孔洞渗透率相差两个数量级;缝孔内容易产生缺陷,没有缺陷的区域随着注射压力的增加、孔洞密度和芯层厚度的减小而增大,在芯层表面沿每排孔洞单向开槽能够改善树脂在孔洞内的浸润;线注射时,树脂整体流动情况优于点注射,而点注射时,将进胶口设置在一角,能够减少表面干斑。     

Analysis and minimization of void formation during resin transfer molding process

In the resin transfer molding process, residual air in the pores of fiber preform results in dry spots and microvoids in the finished product. The dry spots are usually formed due to irregular permeability of fiber mat and improper injection locations. The microvoids result from non-uniform microarchitecture of the fiber preform, and they are transported through the gap between fiber tows during infiltration of the resin. In this study, a real-time simulation/control method was proposed to actively control the formation and the transport of air voids during the mold filling. The flow equations were solved in real time to predict the change of the flow front shape. The flow front was detected by optical sensors and the control actions were taken based on the sensor signals. Through this automated simulation/control scheme, a real-time control of resin flow could effectively avoid the dry spots and minimize the formation of microvoids by modulating the injection pressure.     

树脂传递模塑工艺中的非饱和流动过程模拟与实验研究

针对编织类纤维增强体的纤维束之间与纤维束内孔隙的双尺度特点,建立了平纹织物的细观结构模型,并推导了汇函数的数学表达式。建立了局部细观流动特征的非饱和流动控制方程,利用有限元/控制体积方法求解,得到了局部饱和度分布。与实验进行比较,吻合较好。