Cottonseed oil and meal utilization

For five consecutive years world-wide production of cottonseed has set new highs, and cottonseed is more valuable as a source of food, feed, and fiber than ever before. However this paper is primarily concerned with the utilization of cottonseed oil and meal in the United States. During the three-year period, 1963–65, U.S. farmers received about $300 million annually for 6.18 million tons of cottonseed. Annual U.S. crushings were 5.79 million tons, having produced 1.94 billion pounds of crude oil valued at $222 million, 2.72 million tons of meal valued at $174 million, and 1,609,700 running bales of linters valued at $41.2 million. Retail value of cottonseed products is estimated to have been $1.1 billion annually. Changes in the U.S. cottonseed industry include shifts westward, to fewer and larger extraction plants and to the use of new and improved extraction techniques which involve solvents and high-speed expellers. The cottonseed extraction industry has a payroll of $38.2 million and consists of 188 oil mills in about 14 states, employing 8,400 people. Cottonseed oil accounted for 11.5% of total 1965 U.S. factory consumption of 12.7 billion pounds of fats and oils. Some 62% was used in salad or cooking oil, 27% in baking or frying fats, and 8% in margarine. During the 1960–65 period, usage increased in salad or cooking oils, in baking or frying fats, and in inedible products but decreased in margarine, mellorine, and other edible products. Increases exceeded decreases, and total consumption of cottonseed oil in edible and inedible products increased from 1.28 billion lb. to 1.47 billion lb. Practically all of the 2.76 million tons of cottonseed meal produced in the three-year period beginning October 1963 was used for feed. Relatively insignificant amounts were used as fertilizer on farms of cotton growers. Cattle, sheep, horse, and mule rations consumed 1.88 million tons, poultry rations 440 thousand tons, and swine rations 350 thousand tons. Cottonseed meal in cattle rations has had a downward trend since the early 1950’s although usage in poultry and swine rations has increased. It is estimated that 1.52 million tons were used by feed manufacturers in the preparation of mixed feeds during the 1964–65 season, representing a steady increase over the past two decades and a 54% increase over 1962–63. Domestic use of cottonseed flour has not changed appreciably during the past few years.     

The feed value of rapeseed meal

Rapeseed meal is a high protein-containing material that can be used as a feed for livestock and poultry. Typical meal contains a little less than 40% of protein; however it also contains about 12% crude fiber and glucosinolates, specific components ofCruciferae plants. Thus it is not very popular as a protein component of high quality feed mixtures for animals, and is used mostly in ruminant feeding. The protein value of rapeseed meal is higher than that of the majority of other vegetable proteins containing both lysine and sulphur amino acids. The amino acids of isolated rapeseed protein have been shown to be similar in composition to those of soybean protein, and present in higher concentrations. Rapeseed meal, in comparison with other vegetable oil seed meals, has a relatively high content of crude fiber, lowering its value as a feed component for nonruminants and especially for poultry. The amounts of minerals Ca and P of the vitamin niacin and of choline are rather high, exceeding the amounts of these components in other valuable oil meals, i.e., soybean or sunflower. Glucosinolate derivatives occurring in rapeseed meal are goitrogenic, causing considerable changes in thyroid from initial feeding. This has a negative effect on the biological value of rapeseed as a feed component and as evidenced, among other symptoms, by slower growth of young animals and their utilization of protein. These effects are especially evident in thein the feeding of growing chickens particularly when a protein deficiency exists in the diet. The presence of glucosinolates in feed has not as yet been demonstrated definitely to have a negative effect on the nutritive value of meat and eggs. Penetration and accumulation have not been found in those products. Glucosinolates and their derivatives such as L-5-vinyl-2-oxazolidinethione and isothiocyanates are not transmitted to the milk, although the thiocyanates content of milk evidently increases when cows are fed rapeseed meal. Goitrogenic symptoms have not been detected by consumption of this milk type. In the near future, the elimination of factors limiting the feeding value of rapeseed meal, such as glucosinolates and crude fiber, through breeding of new strains of rapeseeds, will permit their use in high quality protein mixtures not only for ruminant feeding but also in poultry and swine rations. One of nine papers presented at the Symposium, “Cruciferous Oilseeds,” ISF-AOCS World Congress, Chicago, September 1970.     

Use of earthworms as a protein supplement in diets for rabbits

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the nutritive value of earthworms as protein feed in rabbit rations. Earthworm meal was obtained from Eisenia foetida and Lumbricus rubellus. Its proximate chemical composition, amino acid composition and protein digestibility in vitro were determined. In addition, growing rabbits were fed a diet containing 30% of the total protein as earthworm meal, diet which was compared with a control diet containing soybean meal as protein feed. Both diets were isocaloric and isonitrogenous. Feed intake, weight gain, feed conversion and apparent digestibility were measured. Results showed high protein (50.86%) and fat (10.16%) contents, and low fiber percentage (2.67%). Amino acids content including the essential, and in vitro protein digestibility percentage were similar to fish and meat meals and higher than soybean meal. There were no differences in feed intake, weight gain and feed conversion. Apparent digestibility was 5.09% higher (P less than 0.05) with the diet containing earthworm meal than with the control diet. It was concluded that it is possible to substitute 30% of the protein in the diet of growing rabbits, with earthworm meal, without any adverse physiological effects. Similar results to those achieved when conventional protein supplements are used for rabbit rations, were obtained.     

Fractionation of rapeseed meal into hour and hull components

Fine-ground rapeseed meal can be fractionated by liquid cyclone processes into flour and hull fractions. The process can be applied to expeller meal or to the marc after solvent extraction. A nonpolar solvent such as hexane is particularly effective because residual oil in the products is also substantially reduced. The flour, obtained in yield of about66% of the meal, contained over 45% protein and 5-8% of crude fiber. Rapeseed meal is relatively low in digestible energy and the flour fraction would have greater application as a protein supplement in pig and poultry feeds.     

Influence of world fat and oil consumption on protein supply

Fat and oil consumption has influenced the world protein supply principally through the production of oilseeds among vegetable oil sources, fish oil among marine oils and butter among animal fats. In total amount, oilseed protein production is comparable to world production of protein in red meat and in milk. All oilseed and fish meal protein byproducts and some milk protein byproducts find their greatest use in animal and poultry products production. Increased demand for the latter products with concurrent demand for feed protein has shifted the relative values of oil and meal. Increasingly, oilseed production, like meat production, is producing oil as a coproduct, if not a byproduct, of protein production. Although food use of oilseed protein concentrates is increasing, both as fortificants of traditional foods and in newly developed meat analogs, this market appears unlikely to increase demand for protein concentrates as much as the world demand for increase in animal and poultry products. One of 11 papers presented in the Symposium “The World Supply of Edible Oils and Proteins,” AOCS Meeting, Atlantic City, October 1971.     

Soy protein products and their production

The soybean industry in the U.S. started in the first years of this century and was only 5,000,000 bushels just 50 years ago. This year it is expected to be over 1.5 billion bushels, reflecting a remarkable growth. Beans are processed primarily for soybean oil and for meal to be used in poultry and livestock feeds. Only ca. 3% soy protein is used in human food today. Special processing is required to prepare proteins to meet the various specifications of products for the food industry. Methods used to produce flour and grits, spun fibers, textured proteins, concentrates, and isolates are described.     

Formulation and evaluation of the protein quality of a flour mixture of shark fillet by-products and shrimp heads

A flour proposed as a protein source for chick feeding was evaluated. The flour consisted in a 1.00:1.15 dry mixture of by-products from shark filleting (dt) and shrimp by products (cc). It had a crude protein content of 55.66%, a Ca:P ratio of 5.76 and an essential amino acid pattern similar to that of fish meal and/or shark meat. Methionine proved to be the first limiting essential amino acid. The shark meat and the by-products from shark filleting had adequate levels of available lysine (from 337 to 383 mg/g N). The flour had a fineness modulus (F.M.) of 3.95, an average particle diameter of 0.0175 inches (0.444 mm) and a uniformity index of 1:5:4 (coarse:medium:fine parts). The flour was considered suitable for chick feeding. The protein quality of the flour mixture (dt-cc) was evaluated in rats using diets which contained 3, 6, 9 and 12% protein from the product, and determining the PER, NPR and NGI values. Diets containing similar protein levels prepared from dried shark meat flour, mixed with casein, were used as standards. The flour mixture (dt-cc) had a PER of 1.60, an NGIo of 2.46, an NGI of 2.49 and an apparent digestibility of 88.80%. These values proved to be significantly (p less than 0.05) lower than those found for the corresponding shark meat flour-casein standard diets. The above results are partially explained by the high mineral content, high Ca:P ratio and high Na and K of the dt-cc mixture, factors which could interfere with the utilization of the most limiting essential amino acids and other nutrients, as some vitamins, in these diets. The Kruskal-Wallis test of the feed efficiency (EA) data obtained in growing chicks revealed that there was a significant (p less than 0.05) difference between the EA values obtained with the dried shark meat-containing diets and the standard commercial diets (Purina and a diet based on a 1.6:1.0 soybean meal:cottonseed meal mixture). No significant differences were found between the dt-cc mixture-containing diets and the commercial ones used as standard. The diet containing 6% shark meat flour was found to be the best based on the EA data. The diet with 12% of the dt-cc mixture gave similar EA values than all those containing shark meat flour; however, the greater nutritional-economic impact based on the EA data was found for the diets containing 3 and 6% of the dt-cc flour mixture.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Processing for nonruminant feed markets

Processing methods can be controlled to provide a cottonseed meal that is improved nutritionally and substantially free from toxic principles. In so doing, cottonseed meal can be fed beneficially to cattle, poultry, swine, and even trout. It is, therefore, possible to feed cottonseed meal to animals and poultry up to 10% of their dietary levels without harmful effects like minimizing their growth, reducing their bone marrow, harming their spleens, or discoloring their egg yolks. It is, however, necessary to prove to those who might use the meal that the feeding is economically sound and as productive as other meals.     

Selective fixation of deleterious phosphatidic and pigment materials in commercial processing to improve quality of cottonseed oil and meal

Summary Plant operating-procedures and laboratory controls were set up to evaluate the quality of meal and oil which could be produced through each stage of commercial, prepress-solvent-extraction processing. By altering conventional, prepress-solvent-processing conditions and by increasing moisture during cooking and adding granular soda ash after cooking meats, cottonseed meal rations can be produced which are comparable in feed efficiency to soybean meal rations and satisfactory for feeding laying hens in amounts up to 10% of the total weight of the ration with no egg-yolk discoloration and crude cottonseed oils with low F.F.A. and light color can be produced which refined to low Lovibond colors and with ferining losses approximating the chromatographic loss when miscella refined within minutes after separation from the source material with the exclusion of air and light. Presented at the 48th Annual Meeting of the American Oil Chemists' Society, New Orelans, La., April 29, 1957.     

Anti-Nutritional Components, Fibre, Sinapine and Glucosinolate Content, in Australian Canola (Brassica napus L.) Meal

Canola meal is highly regarded as a component of animal feed with a high protein content and a desirable amino acid profile. The presence of some components, in particular glucosinolates, sinapine and fibre, affects the value of the meal and reduces the amount that can be used in animal feed formulations. Glucosinolates in traditional cultivars (rapeseed) had very high amounts and this severely limited the usefulness of the meal. Canola breeding programs have successfully reduced glucosinolate content to trace amounts. However sinapine remains at levels sufficiently high to cause problems, particularly in poultry feed. The relatively high fibre level in canola also reduces the value of the product for animal feed. This study has determined the level of sinapine, glucosinolates and fibre in current cultivars of canola in Australia to illustrate advances made by breeding programs and limitations which still remain to raise the usefulness of a potentially valuable feedstock. Although glucosinolate levels in meal were shown to have been reduced to 11 μmol/g in some cases, sinapine remained at traditional levels of about 12–15 g/kg and neutral detergent fibre levels were about 30–40%. These issues are important priorities for canola breeders.     

Use of sunflower (Heliantus annus, L.) in human foods. II. Enrichment of sunflower protein concentrate with fish and sesame flour

The first part of this study revealed that a sunflower meal submitted to thermic treatment resulted in a protein of better quality when supplemented with lysine, while the meal not subjected to thermic treatment, supplemented with methionine, did not increase its nutritional value. These data indicated, therefore, that the limiting amino acid in sunflower meal is lysine, and not methionine. Based on these findings, and in order to confirm previous results, fish flour (high in lysine) and sesame flour (high methionine) were used to enrich the amino acid pattern of the sunflower protein concentrate. Three diets were thus prepared at the 10% protein level, containing: Sunflower protein concentrate which provided 70% protein, plus sesame flour (30% protein). Sunflower protein concentrate with 70% protein, and fish flour (30% protein). Sunflower concentrate with 70% protein, sesame flour with 20%, and fish flour with 10% protein. These following conclusions were derived on the basis of the analysis of these results: Supplementation of sunflower concentrate with 30% sesame flour does not producer a product of high nutritional value, once again indicating that lysine and not methionine is the limiting amino acid. Supplementation of the sunflower protein concentrate with fish flour (high in lysine content) presents a protein efficiency ratio (PER), practically equal to that of the casein pattern.     

Use of flour of pejibaye fruit (Bactris gasipaes H.B.K.) in bread making

Trial were conducted in Costa Rica in 1984 and 1985, to determine the possibility of substituting pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes H.B.K.) meal for wheat flour in bread. Utilization in three distinct mixtures was examined: 90:10, 85:15 and 80:20 percentage of wheat flour to percentage of pejibaye meal, respectively. The breads were made, and dough analyses were conducted at "Molinos de Costa Rica, S.A.", the country's principal flour mill. Chemical analyses were carried out at the University of Costa Rica. Results indicate a marked inverse relationship between both initial dough development time and dough strength maintenance, and the content of pejibaye meal present in the flour mixture. Consequent problems with sufficient dough expansion preclude utilization of this fruit meal for bread-making in proportions significantly greater than 10% of the total composite flour. The above-mentioned findings reflect the high nutritional value of the pejibaye fruit. Although the protein content is inversely correlated with the amount of pejibaye meal in the mixture, vitamin A and fat contents are positively correlated. This fact demonstrates that the utilization of pejibaye meal in bread-making may well be in some ways considered as a form of nutritional enrichment. As a final conclusion drawn from the results of analyses of the trials and sensory observations, the 90% wheat flour with 10% pejibaye meal mixture apparently was the optimum substitution level of the breads examined. The potential macroeconomic ramifications on the Costa Rican economy of producing and utilizing pejibaye meal in bread-making, are highly favorable.     

Quality of US Soybean Meal Compared to the Quality of Soybean Meal from Other Origins

Quality of soybeans and soybean meals (SBM) from non-US and US origins were compared. The US SBM was more consistent with higher digestibility (by KOH solubility), lower fiber and better quality of protein (by essential amino acid levels) than SBM of other major export origins (Argentina, Brazil and India). Protein quality carried through from whole soybeans to SBM, for a given origin. While the protein content was higher for the SBM from Brazil, the percentage of total digestible amino acids was highest for the SBM from the US and China. The US SBM had the highest content (total) of five essential amino acids for both poultry and swine feed uses, which when coupled with higher digestibility, would give US meal an advantage in rations balanced on amino acids. The mean particle size for all SBM from all origins was within the desirable range specified by nutritionists. The US soybeans were lower in protein than Brazilian soybeans, but higher than Argentine soybeans. The crude protein disadvantage of US soybeans was offset by higher concentrations of the essential amino acids in the lower protein soybeans. The US soybeans were lower in oil content than soybeans from either of the South American origins. Average protein and oil contents of US soybeans were consistent with the 2003 and 2004 annual soybean quality surveys. The US SBM held an advantage in digestibility and concentration of key amino acids in all three studies.     

Practical significance of gossypol in feed formulation

It has been recognized that gossypol has a limiting effect on the usage of cottonseed meal in nonruminant rations. Extensive research supported by practical experience has shown that cottonseed meal may be a major oilseed supplemental protein source in nonruminant rations when care is taken to accept and adjust for gossypol limitations. Scientifically derived gossypol limitations will not significantly restrict cottonseed meal usage in practical nonruminant rations. Presented at the Carl M. Lyman Memorial Symposium on Gossypol, AOCS Meeting, New Orleans, April 1970.     

Elimination of toxic compounds, biological evaluation and partial characterization of the protein from jojoba meal (Simmondsia chinensis [Link] Schneider

The purpose of this study was to establish a new methodology to remove the toxic compounds present in jojoba meal and flour. Also, to perform the biological evaluation of the detoxified products and to chemically characterize the protein fractions. Jojoba meal and seed without testa were deffated with hexane and detoxified with a 7:3 isopropanol-water mixture which removed 86% of total phenolic compounds and 100% of simmondsins originally present, the resulting products had reduced bitterness and caused no deaths on experimental animals. NPR values obtained for diets containing such products were significantly different from those obtained with the casein control (p less than 0.05). Total protein was made up of three different fractions: the water-soluble fraction was the most abundant (61.8%), followed by the salt-soluble (23.6%), and the alkaline soluble fraction (14.6%). The nitrogen solubility curves showed that the isoelectric point for the water-soluble and salt-soluble fractions was pH 3.0, while that of the alkaline fraction fell in the range of 4.5-5.0. All fractions had a maximum solubility at pH 7.0. The methodology reported here, offers a viable solution to eliminate toxic compounds from jojoba meal or seeds, and upgrades the potential use of products such as animal feed or raw material for the production of protein isolates.     

Soybean Meal Retains Its Nutritional Value as an Animal Feed Following in Situ Transesterification

The lipid-depleted meal transesterified soybean meal (TSM) coproduct of the in situ transesterification of soybeans to produce biodiesel, and a reference commercial hexane-extracted soybean meal (HSM), were investigated as poultry feeds. In situ transesterification removed 95 % of the lipid from soybean flakes without destroying amino acids or affecting caloric content. Trypsin inhibitor in TSM was successfully denatured by a steam/heat treatment. Two groups of broiler chicks, each consisting of 300 birds (20/pen), were fed diets whose soy meal component was either TSM or HSM. A block design was used, a ‘block’ consisting of two adjacent pens, one receiving TSM and the other HSM. Starter formulation was fed from day 1 to 21 and grower formulation from day 22 to the end of the study on day 42. Chicks accepted both the TSM and HSM diets. No acute toxicities occurred. Over the course of the study weight gain, feed consumption and feed efficiency were comparable (p ≥ 0.05) between the two test groups. Mortalities in the group receiving TSM exceeded those in the HSM group (6.8 vs. 3.4 %), but did not reach statistical significance. Histological examination of the livers of 40 birds sacrificed at the end of the study showed no evidence of pathology in either dietary group. Soybean meal subjected to in situ transesterification is an acceptable component of poultry diets.     

Crambe meal as a protein source for feeds

Crambe abyssinica may be grown for its seed oil containing 55-60% erucic acid, which fills a long-term, technologically important US industrial market. The residual meal could serve in animal feeds, but, like other Cruciferae, crambe seed contains glucosinolates that limit the feed value of the defatted meal. Protein content, amino acid composition, protein efficiency tests and numerous animal feeding experiments show that crambe meal contains protein of good nutritional quality. Means of reducing, nullifying or removing the glucosinolates and their hydrolysis (aglucon) products have been the object of many studies, and crambe meals containing native levels of glucosinolates and/or aglucon products have been shown to be lethal to mice, rats and chicks when fed at significant dietary levels. Animal performance is inversely related to sublethal concen-trations of these compounds in modified meals. However, water-extracted crambe meals have excellent nutritional quality when such extraction removes the glucosinolates and/or aglucon products. Feeding experiments suggest that these meals, although more costly to prepare, could be used in feeds for nonruminant animals. On the other hand, moist heat-toasting of crambe meals in conventional oilseed extraction facilities provides meals of value for supplemental protein in beef rations. For this use, specifications and FDA ap-proval are in place for commercial exploitation of crambe meal. These studies and the status of crambe as a protein source in feeds are reviewed.     

Rapeseed meal in animal nutrition: II. Nonruminant animals

On the basis of our present knowledge regarding the use of rapeseed meal in rations for swine and poultry, it would appear that the usage levels for high glucosinolate and low glucosinolate rapeseed meals discussed in this paper should give excellent results in terms of performance. Presented at the ISF/AOCS World Congress, New York City, April 1980.     

Chemical composition and biological quality of defatted hazelnut flour

The results of the chemical composition and biological quality of deffated hazel nut flour are shown. The samples analyzed contained significant amounts of proteins (19%) comparable to legume flour, higher than cereals and lower than deffated oleaginous flours. The oil extracted from the seed was analyzed and the average results obtained were the following: Refraction index, 1.47; saponification No. 184.8; iodine No. 85.0. The average composition of the fatty acids obtained by gas liquid chromatography was: Palmitic acid 2.3% Palmitoleic acid 37.0% Stearic acid 0.5% Oleic acid 39.5% Linoleic acid 6.9% Linolenic acid 1.1% Eicosanoic acid 2.3% Eicosaenoic acid 4.6% Docosenoic acid 3.4% Tetraeicosanoic acid 0.3% These results indicate a good-quality oil due to the low content of linolenic acid. The nutritive value of the deffated meal measured in the rats gave a net protein ratio (NPR) of 3.58, lower than the corresponding casein value (4.10). The true protein digestibility measured in the rat gave a value of 7.3%, compared to 95% for casein. The amounts of iron and phosphorous are comparatively lower than those reported for rape-seed meal and sunflower meal.     

Adhesion Properties of Plywood Glue Containing Soybean Meal as an Extender

This study was conducted to evaluate the performance of soybean meal as a protein extender in plywood adhesive intended for sprayline coaters. Ground soybean meal, with 52.8% (dry basis, db) crude protein and 0.9% (db) residual oil, replaced the current industry extender, wheat flour, in the standard glue mix. Substitution was done on the protein content basis. Mixing and adhesion properties of the glue containing soybean meal were compared with those of the industry-standard glue. The soybean meal-based glue showed excellent mixing characteristics and its viscosity (1,275 cp) met the recommended value for this type of adhesive. Its wet tensile strength, however, was less than that of the standard glue and below the threshold value of 200 psi considered as an indicator of strong bonding. The soybean meal glue formulation was then modified further by increasing the amount of meal such that the amount of protein present was double that contributed by wheat flour in the original mix. This adjustment resulted in higher wet tensile strength (209 psi), which not only met the threshold value for strong glue bonds, but also equaled that of the standard glue. These results demonstrated that soybean meal is a viable extender in plywood glue for sprayline coaters.