Distributed cognition as a theoretical framework for information visualization

Even though information visualization (InfoVis) research has matured in recent years, it is generally acknowledged that the field still lacks supporting, encompassing theories. In this paper, we argue that the distributed cognition framework can be used to substantiate the theoretical foundation of InfoVis. We highlight fundamental assumptions and theoretical constructs of the distributed cognition approach, based on the cognitive science literature and a real life scenario. We then discuss how the distributed cognition framework can have an impact on the research directions and methodologies we take as InfoVis researchers. Our contributions are as follows. First, we highlight the view that cognition is more an emergent property of interaction than a property of the human mind. Second, we argue that a reductionist approach to study the abstract properties of isolated human minds may not be useful in informing InfoVis design. Finally we propose to make cognition an explicit research agenda, and discuss the implications on how we perform evaluation and theory building.     

Toward a deeper understanding of the role of interaction in information visualization

Even though interaction is an important part of information visualization (Infovis), it has garnered a relatively low level of attention from the Infovis community. A few frameworks and taxonomies of Infovis interaction techniques exist, but they typically focus on low-level operations and do not address the variety of benefits interaction provides. After conducting an extensive review of Infovis systems and their interactive capabilities, we propose seven general categories of interaction techniques widely used in Infovis: 1) Select, 2) Explore, 3) Reconfigure, 4) Encode, 5) Abstract/Elaborate, 6) Filter, and 7) Connect. These categories are organized around a user's intent while interacting with a system rather than the low-level interaction techniques provided by a system. The categories can act as a framework to help discuss and evaluate interaction techniques and hopefully lay an initial foundation toward a deeper understanding and a science of interaction.     

A model and framework for visualization exploration

Visualization exploration is the process of extracting insight from data via interaction with visual depictions of that data. Visualization exploration is more than presentation; the interaction with both the data and its depiction is as important as the data and depiction itself. Significant visualization research has focused on the generation of visualizations (the depiction); less effort has focused on the exploratory aspects of visualization (the process). However, without formal models of the process, visualization exploration sessions cannot be fully utilized to assist users and system designers. Toward this end, we introduce the P-Set model of visualization exploration for describing this process and a framework to encapsulate, share, and analyze visual explorations. In addition, systems utilizing the model and framework are more efficient as redundant exploration is avoided. Several examples drawn from visualization applications demonstrate these benefits. Taken together, the model and framework provide an effective means to exploit the information within the visual exploration process     

A computing framework for integrating interactive visualization in HPCC applications

Network-based concurrent computing and interactive data visualization are two important components in industry applications of high-performance computing and communication. We propose an execution framework to build interactive remote visualization systems for real-world applications on heterogeneous parallel and distributed computers. Using a dataflow model of a commercial visualization software AVS in three case studies, we demonstrate a simple, effective, and modular approach to couple parallel simulation modules into an interactive remote visualization environment. The applications described in this paper are drawn from our industrial projects in financial modeling, computational electromagnetics and computational chemistry. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Web-based information visualization

Increasingly, the World Wide Web is being used to help visualize complex relational information. We have developed a number of Web-based information visualization prototypes and applications by adapting several well-known information visualization ideas and techniques for use within Web environments. Before delving into specific examples, we offer some relevant background about the Web and our use of visualization for analysis     

An information-theoretic framework for visualization

In this paper, we examine whether or not information theory can be one of the theoretic frameworks for visualization. We formulate concepts and measurements for qualifying visual information. We illustrate these concepts with examples that manifest the intrinsic and implicit use of information theory in many existing visualization techniques. We outline the broad correlation between visualization and the major applications of information theory, while pointing out the difference in emphasis and some technical gaps. Our study provides compelling evidence that information theory can explain a significant number of phenomena or events in visualization, while no example has been found which is fundamentally in conflict with information theory. We also notice that the emphasis of some traditional applications of information theory, such as data compression or data communication, may not always suit visualization, as the former typically focuses on the efficient throughput of a communication channel, whilst the latter focuses on the effectiveness in aiding the perceptual and cognitive process for data understanding and knowledge discovery. These findings suggest that further theoretic developments are necessary for adopting and adapting information theory for visualization.     

A bidirectional-transformation-based framework for software visualization and visual editing

Software visualization and visual editing are important and practical techniques to improve the development of complex software systems. A challenge when applying the two technologies is how to realize the correspondence, a bidirectional relationship, between the data and its visual representation correctly. Although many tools and frameworks have been developed to support the construction of visual tools, it is still compli- cated and error-prone to realize the bidirectional relationship. In this paper, we propose a model-driven and bidirectional-transformation-based framework for data visualization and visual editing. Our approach mainly focuses on 1） how to define and manage graphical symbols in the model form and 2） how to specify and im- plement the bidirectional relationship based on the technique of bidirectional model transformation. Then, a prototype tool and four case studies are presented to evaluate the feasibility of our work.     

A regularized graph layout framework for dynamic network visualization

Many real-world networks, including social and information networks, are dynamic structures that evolve over time. Such dynamic networks are typically visualized using a sequence of static graph layouts. In addition to providing a visual representation of the network structure at each time step, the sequence should preserve the mental map between layouts of consecutive time steps to allow a human to interpret the temporal evolution of the network. In this paper, we propose a framework for dynamic network visualization in the on-line setting where only present and past graph snapshots are available to create the present layout. The proposed framework creates regularized graph layouts by augmenting the cost function of a static graph layout algorithm with a grouping penalty, which discourages nodes from deviating too far from other nodes belonging to the same group, and a temporal penalty, which discourages large node movements between consecutive time steps. The penalties increase the stability of the layout sequence, thus preserving the mental map. We introduce two dynamic layout algorithms within the proposed framework, namely dynamic multidimensional scaling and dynamic graph Laplacian layout. We apply these algorithms on several data sets to illustrate the importance of both grouping and temporal regularization for producing interpretable visualizations of dynamic networks.     

A framework for compliant physical interaction

Although the grasp-task interplay in our daily life is unquestionable, very little research has addressed this problem in robotics. In order to fill the gap between the grasp and the task, we adopt the most successful approaches to grasp and task specification, and extend them with additional elements that allow to define a grasp-task link. We propose a global sensor-based framework for the specification and robust control of physical interaction tasks, where the grasp and the task are jointly considered on the basis of the task frame formalism and the knowledge-based approach to grasping. A physical interaction task planner is also presented, based on the new concept of task-oriented hand preshapes. The planner focuses on manipulation of articulated parts in home environments, and is able to specify automatically all the elements of a physical interaction task required by the proposed framework. Finally, several applications are described, showing the versatility of the proposed approach, and its suitability for the fast implementation of robust physical interaction tasks in very different robotic systems.     

A reference framework for continuous interaction

The latest developments in human computer interfaces aim at greater ease of use, and the exploitation of human communication and interaction skills typical of non-computerised environments. This kind of interaction is continuous rather than purely discrete. Continuous interaction implies a tighter coupling between system and user, and raises complicated synchronisation issues where real-time requirements and intrinsic variation of human behaviour play an essential role. In this paper, we propose a human centred layered reference model to reduce the design complexity of systems exhibiting continuous interaction. In the context of the layered model, we discuss the role that formal modelling can play in the design of these systems. Published online: 14 May 2002     

Mental models, visual reasoning and interaction in information visualization: a top-down perspective

Although previous research has suggested that examining the interplay between internal and external representations can benefit our understanding of the role of information visualization (InfoVis) in human cognitive activities, there has been little work detailing the nature of internal representations, the relationship between internal and external representations and how interaction is related to these representations. In this paper, we identify and illustrate a specific kind of internal representation, mental models, and outline the high-level relationships between mental models and external visualizations. We present a top-down perspective of reasoning as model construction and simulation, and discuss the role of visualization in model based reasoning. From this perspective, interaction can be understood as active modeling for three primary purposes: external anchoring, information foraging, and cognitive offloading. Finally we discuss the implications of our approach for design, evaluation and theory development.     

Analyzing the solutions of DEA through information visualization and data mining techniques: SmartDEA framework

Data envelopment analysis (DEA) has proven to be a useful tool for assessing efficiency or productivity of organizations, which is of vital practical importance in managerial decision making. DEA provides a significant amount of information from which analysts and managers derive insights and guidelines to promote their existing performances. Regarding to this fact, effective and methodologic analysis and interpretation of DEA results are very critical. The main objective of this study is then to develop a general decision support system (DSS) framework to analyze the results of basic DEA models. The paper formally shows how the results of DEA models should be structured so that these solutions can be examined and interpreted by analysts through information visualization and data mining techniques effectively. An innovative and convenient DEA solver, SmartDEA, is designed and developed in accordance with the proposed analysis framework. The developed software provides DEA results which are consistent with the framework and are ready-to-analyze with data mining tools, thanks to their specially designed table-based structures. The developed framework is tested and applied in a real world project for benchmarking the vendors of a leading Turkish automotive company. The results show the effectiveness and the efficacy of the proposed framework.     

Graph visualization and navigation in information visualization: Asurvey

This is a survey on graph visualization and navigation techniques, as used in information visualization. Graphs appear in numerous applications such as Web browsing, state-transition diagrams, and data structures. The ability to visualize and to navigate in these potentially large, abstract graphs is often a crucial part of an application. Information visualization has specific requirements, which means that this survey approaches the results of traditional graph drawing from a different perspective     

A framework for variation visualization and understanding in complex manufacturing systems

This paper provides a framework that allows industrial practitioners to visualize the most significant variation patterns within their process using three-dimensional animation software. In essence, this framework complements Phase I statistical monitoring methods by enabling users to: (1) acquire detailed understanding of common-cause variability (especially in complex manufacturing systems); (2) quickly and easily visualize the effects of common-cause variability in a process with respect to the final product; and (3) utilize the new insights regarding the process variability to identify opportunities for process improvement. The framework is illustrated through a case study using actual dimensional data from a US automotive assembly plant.     

A spreadsheet approach to facilitate visualization of uncertainty in information

Information uncertainty is inherent in many problems and is often subtle and complicated to understand. Although visualization is a powerful means for exploring and understanding information, information uncertainty visualization is ad hoc and not widespread. This paper identifies two main barriers to the uptake of information uncertainty visualization: firstly, the difficulty of modeling and propagating the uncertainty information; and secondly, the difficulty of mapping uncertainty to visual elements. To overcome these barriers, we extend the spreadsheet paradigm to encapsulate uncertainty details within cells. This creates an inherent awareness of the uncertainty associated with each variable. The spreadsheet can hide the uncertainty details, enabling the user to think simply in terms of variables. Furthermore, the system can aid with automated propagation of uncertainty information, since it is intrinsically aware of the uncertainty. The system also enables mapping the encapsulated uncertainty to visual elements via the formula language and a visualization sheet. Support for such low-level visual mapping provides flexibility to explore new techniques for information uncertainty visualization.     

Opportunities for information visualization

Information visualization has been an active research topic for more than a decade. Products are starting to appear. This article discusses some of the research and commercial opportunities for information visualization over the next decade     

A unified framework for web video topic discovery and visualization

Together with the explosive growth of web video in sharing sites like YouTube, automatic topic discovery and visualization have become increasingly important in helping to organize and navigate such large-scale videos. Previous work dealt with the topic discovery and visualization problem separately, and did not take fully into account of the distinctive characteristics of multi-modality and sparsity in web video features. This paper tries to solve web video topic discovery problem with visualization under a single framework, and proposes a Star-structured K-partite Graph based co-clustering and ranking framework, which consists of three stages: (1) firstly, represent the web videos and their multi-model features (e.g., keyword, near-duplicate keyframe, near-duplicate aural frame, etc.) as a Star-structured K-partite Graph; (2) secondly, group videos and their features simultaneously into clusters (topics) and organize the generated clusters as a linked cluster network; (3) finally, rank each type of nodes in the linked cluster network by “popularity” and visualize them as a novel interface to let user interactively browse topics in multi-level scales. Experiments on a YouTube benchmark dataset demonstrate the flexibility and effectiveness of our proposed framework.     

An information-theoretic framework for flow visualization

The process of visualization can be seen as a visual communication channel where the input to the channel is the raw data, and the output is the result of a visualization algorithm. From this point of view, we can evaluate the effectiveness of visualization by measuring how much information in the original data is being communicated through the visual communication channel. In this paper, we present an information-theoretic framework for flow visualization with a special focus on streamline generation. In our framework, a vector field is modeled as a distribution of directions from which Shannon's entropy is used to measure the information content in the field. The effectiveness of the streamlines displayed in visualization can be measured by first constructing a new distribution of vectors derived from the existing streamlines, and then comparing this distribution with that of the original data set using the conditional entropy. The conditional entropy between these two distributions indicates how much information in the original data remains hidden after the selected streamlines are displayed. The quality of the visualization can be improved by progressively introducing new streamlines until the conditional entropy converges to a small value. We describe the key components of our framework with detailed analysis, and show that the framework can effectively visualize 2D and 3D flow data.     

A methodological framework for formulating information policy

Effective operation, control and management of the information service within an organization are essential to its success. Nevertheless, many management decisions that effect this service are made by default, or through a play of forces, rather than in accordance with general management policy. This paper presents a framework for formulating an information policy in an organization. Its architecture is built up of four components: information policy goals, measures to determine how well these are achieved, policy actions and alternatives, and the information services system itself.A list of policy actions, outlining the decisions which should be made by management, in cooperation with information service department and its users, is organized into an Information Policy Matrix. This provides a structured approach.     

A framework for multinational information systems planning

The purpose of this study was to develop and identify formal strategic planning and control approaches and requisites to better manage and integrate the information systems resources (e.g. information systems, telecommunications and office automation) more effectively with the business plans and processes in a large multidivisional, multiproduct and transnational corporate environment. Additionally, an examination of certain external and internal environmental factors and pressures was conducted to assist business and information systems executives, and professionals to focus on those factors which influence the successful management and direction of the multinational information systems resources and functions (MNISR) within their environments.Twenty-five U.S. based multinational organizations participated in the research. Most of the organizations were selected from the manufacturing (e.g. energy, pharmaceuticals, consumer products and electronic) industry with some representation from the banking and financial services industry. In addition, four case studies were conducted to provide in-depth analysis, comparisons and verifications of actual MNISR planning and control practices.A pragmatic strategic planning framework and structure consisting of multiple but interrelated components and activities is suggested as the formal end product of this research. In addition, five general conclusions stand out from the research. First, the MNISR plan structure must accomodate both the similarities and differences between the domestic and international MNISR environments and the key factors which influence them. Second, business and MNISR plan linkages must be established by addressing strategic business and MNISR support issues and strategies at several organizational levels based on the involvement of multiple personnel across business and geographic unit boundaries. Third, the utilization of a uniform MNISR planning language, process, cycle and structure similar to the business plan language, process, cycle and structure is critical. Fourth, the role of the corporate (central MNISR) staff should be well defined and limited to only those activities where its expertise is either clearly recognized and/or established by corporate policy. Fifth, corporate MNISR should provide funding for MNISR strategies that are either mandated by corporate headquarters or have a demonstrable comparative advantage to the individual multinational business components as well as the corporation as a whole.