Comparative study of conventional vs. one-step-interconnected (OSI) monolithic CdTe modules

We report on the fabrication of 5 × 7.5 cm² CdTe photovoltaic module devices using two alternative routes. One which uses the conventional approach where laser scribing and active layer deposition steps are inter-mixed, and the other via the one-step-interconnection (OSI) process. OSI combines three laser processes with two inkjet processes, depositing insulating and conductive materials. This allows the series interconnection to occur after the deposition of all active layers reducing fabrication time, capital equipment cost and interconnect dead zone. Its suitability for the manufacture of CdTe mini-modules has previously been demonstrated but no direct comparison was made against the conventional process. The structural properties and performance of conventional vs. OSI processed CdTe modules are presented and show comparable performance using both approaches with the OSI showing considerable process simplification.     

Method for fabricating the compact layer in dye-sensitized solar cells by titanium sputter deposition and acid-treatments

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) have been put forward as a potential low-cost alternative to the widely used silicon solar cells, which are subject to cost limitations. However, some problems need to be solved in order to enhance the efficiency of DSCs. In particular, the electron recombination occurred by the contact between the transparent conductive oxide (TCO) and a redox electrolyte is one of the main limiting factors of efficiency. Accordingly, a compact layer plays an important role in realizing highly efficient DSCs because it improves the adhesion of the TiO₂ to the TCO and provides a larger contact area and more effective electron transfer by preventing electron recombination. In this work, the fabrication of a TiO₂ compact layer using Ti sputter deposition and acid-treatment was investigated rather than the conventional method, which uses a TiCl₄ aqueous solution. The acid-treatment of the sputtered Ti film actively oxidized the Ti particles. As a result, such a cell exhibited an additional 1.3% in total efficiency compared to the standard DSC without a compact layer. These improvements are not inferior to those obtained by the conventional fabrication method using a TiCl₄ aqueous solution.     

Patternable brush painting process for fabrication of flexible polymer solar cells

The brushing painting method is one of the typical solution processes, which makes it possible to fabricate electronic devices by simply using polymers. For the fabrication of modules and large-area devices, however, a patterning process is required for each layer. Due to the problems associated with the conventional patterning, many studies have been conducted to develop new patterning . In this study, we successfully fabricated bulk heterojunction (BHJ) structured polymer solar cells (PSCs) on a plastic substrate with an active layer through the brushing painting process. In particular, flexible PSCs with hole transporting and photo-active layers formed by the repositionable adhesive-based patterning method were fabricated to produce large-area solar cells. The fabricated PSCs exhibited Jsc, Voc, FF and power conversion efficiency (PCE) values of 8.5 mA/cm², 0.636 V, 48.8% and 2.6%, respectively. In other words, they were more efficient than those fabricated by the spin coating method. In particular, an increase in the Jsc and FF values was observed when the series resistance (Rs) decreased to 29 Ω cm² while the shunt resistance (Rsh) increased to 2018 Ω cm².     

Calculation of CIS and CdTe module efficiencies

An accurate and fast method to calculate the efficiency of Cu(In,Ga)Se₂ (CIGS) and CdTe thin-film solar modules is presented here. This comprises a new method to calculate the fill factor as a function of discrete and distributed series resistance, and of shunt conductance: a three-dimensional, third-order polynomial approximation is presented, and the expansion of the coefficients as a power series of 1/V_oc is given. Analytical expressions are presented which fit experimental data of the optical absorption in ZnO as a function of its thickness or sheet resistance. Together with a calculation outline of the series and shunt effects of the module integration, this constitutes a practical module design tool. This is illustrated with results of dependence of module efficiency on cell length, window and absorber sheet resistance, interconnect contact resistance, “softness” of the cell I–V curve, and absorber material (CIGS or CdTe). Optimal or critical values for these parameters are given.     

Reduction of optical losses in colored solar cells with multilayer antireflection coatings

Solar modules are becoming an everyday presence in several countries. So far, the installation of such modules has been performed without esthetic concerns, typical locations being rooftops or solar power plants. Building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) systems represent an interesting, alternative approach for increasing the available area for electricity production and potentially for further reducing the cost of solar electricity. In BIPV, the visual impression of a solar module becomes important, including its color. The color of a solar module is determined by the color of the cells in the module, which is given by the antireflection coating (ARC). The ARC is a thin film structure that significantly increases the amount of current produced by and, hence, the efficiency of a solar cell. The deposition of silicon nitride single layer ARCs with a dark blue color is the most common process in the industry today and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) is mostly used for this purpose. However, access to efficient, but differently colored solar cells are important for the further development of BIPV. In this paper, the impact of varying the color of an ARC upon the optical characteristics and efficiency of a solar cell is investigated. The overall transmittance and reflectance of a set of differently colored single layer ARCs are compared with multilayered silicon nitride ARCs, all made using PECVD. These are again compared with porous silicon ARCs fabricated using an electrochemical process allowing for the rapid and simple manufacture of ARC structures with many tens of layers. In addition to a comparison of the optical characteristics of such solar cells, the effect of using colored ARCs on solar cell efficiency is quantified using the solar cell modeling tool PC1D. This work shows that the use of multilayer ARC structures can allow solar cells with a range of different colors throughout the visual spectrum to retain very high efficiencies.     

Metallisation patterns for interconnection through holes

ECN has developed a new cell- and module-design for crystalline silicon solar cells called pin-up module (PUM). In this design a limited number of holes (typically 9 or 16) is used to interconnect the front-side metallisation to a foil at the rear side by using pins. In this way the busbars and tabs at the front side are eliminated resulting in several important benefits. The efficiency of the cell becomes independent of the cell area and the efficiency is higher compared to standard tabbed cells. Another benefit is the improved visual appearance. In this paper we discuss the design of the metallisation pattern for the cells. A theoretical analysis is presented that shows the gains of the PUM design over conventional cells.     

7% stable efficiency large area a-Si: H solar modules by module design improvement

Recent progress in series production of large area, single junction a-Si: H modules (0.4 m²) at Siemens Solar GmbH, Munich, led to high process stability and an overall yield exceeding 90%. Along with these achievements the efficiency of the modules went up considerably. The efficiency was further improved by combining (1) laser scribing technique for structuring the back side TCO of the module and (2) a cell width optimization concerning the tradeoff between the power loss due to electrode resistivity and area loss due to the number of laser scribes and total interconnect width. Efforts for additional improvements of the isolation cut at the modules edges by a subsequent chemical treatment at the front sides of the circuit and an enhancement of the photocurrent by optimizing the optical properties of the reflector material add up to an initial module efficiency of 8.9% and a stabilized efficiency of 7% for the best module. This is from our knowledge the highest value for large area a-Si:H pin modules up to now. Further improvements in cell design leading to an photodegradation of 15% for pin modules seem to be possible.     

Simulation and optimization of CdS-n/Cu2ZnSnS4 structure for solar cell applications

In this work, the performance of solar cell based on CdS-n/Cu₂ZnSnS₄-p hetero-junction is numerically simulated. The aim of the study is to investigate the influence of thickness, defects density and bandgap energy of absorber layer CZTS and the thickness of the buffer layer CdS of the solar cell on electrical parameters J_sc, V_oc, FF and efficiency η of the cell. The results of our simulation allowed us to optimize the parameters above mentioned in order to get the best efficiency at the optimal band gap which corresponds to the maximum of the solar spectrum with optimal values of the electrical performances of the cell. This results lead to develop CZTS solar cells with high efficiency and low cost and give a help full indication for fabrication process.     

Improvement in durability of flexible plastic dye-sensitized solar cell modules

Large-area integrated modules of flexible plastic type dye-sensitized solar cell (DSC) have been fabricated based on polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) film for practical applications such as ubiquitous power sources. From the view point of improving durability, composition of organic solvent-based electrolytes has been investigated. As a result, a plastic DSC module using LiI-free electrolyte maintained its energy conversion efficiency of 2% over 220 h under the accelerated condition of 55 °C and 95% relative humidity.     

Cathode-side electrical contact and contact materials for solid oxide fuel cell stacking: A review

In a planar solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) stack, a number of individual cells are stacked together to increase the voltage and power output. At both the cathode– and anode–interconnect interfaces, electrical contact layers are applied between the interconnect and electrodes during cell fabrication process or stack assembly to increase the electrode-interconnect contact area and to compensate for dimensional tolerance variation of the contacting components, thus minimizing ohmic contact resistance throughout the stack. As such, electrical contact is an essential component in SOFC stacks. In this paper, we review the cathode-side electrical contact design and contact materials for application in SOFC stacks. Following an introduction of the function and working principles of electrical contact, the material requirements for cathode-side contact layer in SOFC stacks are outlined. The current materials for the cathode–interconnect contact are thoroughly reviewed, including noble metals, conductive ceramics (e.g. perovskites and spinels), composites, and other more complex structures. Several potential directions for cathode–interconnect contact material research and development are also highlighted.     

Thin-film crystalline silicon mini-modules using porous Si for layer transfer

Layer transfer processes yield Si films of high electronic quality on low-cost non-Si carriers such as glass: a crystalline Si film grows on a Si–substrate wafer, is detached from that substrate and transferred to a low-cost non-Si device carrier. The substrate wafer is re-used for further growth cycles. Electrochemical etching of a porous Si (PSI) layer system into the substrate wafer enables homoepitaxial growth of monocrystalline Si films and facilitates the detachment of the film. We discuss the potential of crystalline thin-film cells from layer transfer and review the layer transfer work conducted at ZAE Bayern. The sevenfold use of a substrate wafer and the transfer of a 10 × 10 cm² epitaxial film from a 6″-wafer is demonstrated. A new module process that permits an integrated series connection by a single metallization step is demonstrated to yield a module efficiency of 10%.     

Review of materials and manufacturing options for large area flexible dye solar cells

This review covers the current state of the art related to up-scaling and commercialization of dye solar cells (DSC). The cost analysis of the different components and manufacturing of DSC gives an estimate on the overall production costs. Moreover, it provides an insight in which areas improvement is needed in order to reach significant cost reductions. As a result of the cost analysis, transferring the technology to flexible substrates and employment of simple roll-to-roll production methods were found the key issues. The focus of this work was set accordingly. In this work, appropriate materials along with their unique fabrication processes and different design methods are investigated highlighting their advantages and limitations. The basic goal is to identify the best materials and preparation techniques suitable for an ideal roll-to-roll process of flexible dye solar module fabrication as well as the areas where further development is still needed.     

High-temperature (800 °C) dual atmosphere corrosion of electroless nickel-plated ferritic stainless steel

Planar solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) systems often employ metallic interconnects, which separate and connect individual cells in electrical series to create a stack. Coated and uncoated ferritic stainless steels (FSSs), are reported among the most promising materials currently being investigated for the interconnect application. In this study, FSS AISI 441 samples coated with electroless nickel (∼15 μm) were subjected to both single (moist air) and dual atmosphere (moist air/moist hydrogen) exposures at 800 °C for 100 h to simulate short-term SOFC interconnect operation. Single-atmosphere exposures induced a uniform and dense surface oxide layer of approximately 5 μm total thickness, comprised of a dense and uniform Ni-rich oxide layer above a mixed layer of Fe, Cr and Mn-rich oxides. In contrast, the air-side of dual atmosphere exposed samples consisted of a mixed, porous and delaminated surface layer comprised of Fe, Cr, Mn and Ni metals and oxides, with over 30 μm in total thickness. Comparative analyses of the single and dual atmosphere exposures and resultant surface oxide layers, along with suspected mechanisms and implications are presented and discussed.     

Fabrication and operation of a 6 kWe class interconnector-type anode-supported tubular solid oxide fuel cell stack

A 6 kW class interconnector-type anode-supported tubular solid oxide fuel cell (ICT SOFC) stack is fabricated and operated in this study. An optimized current-collection method, which the method for current collection at the cathode using the winding method and is the method for the connection between cells using interconnect, is suggested to enhance the performance of the fabricated cell. That method can increase the current collection area because of usage of winding method for cell and make the connection between cells easy. The performance of a single cell with an effective electrode area of 205 cm² exhibits 51 W at 750 °C and 0.7 V. To assemble a 1 kW class stack, the prepared ICT SOFC cells are connected in series to 20 cells connected in parallel (20 cells in series × two in parallel, 20S2P). Four modules are assembled for a 6 kWe class stack. For one module, the prepared ICT SOFC cells are connected in series to 48 cells, in which one unit bundle consists of two cells connected in parallel. The performance of the stack in 3% humidified H₂ and air at 750 °C exhibits the maximum electrical power of 7425 W.     

Inkjet and laser hybrid processing for series interconnection of thin film photovoltaics

Abstract

Inkjet deposition can be a complementary technology to laser ablation to enable new processes. One such process is the One step interconnect for thin film photovoltaics, which is an improved method for series interconnection. The standard series interconnection process consists of three laser scribes between the deposition of the three key cell layers; transparent front contact, absorber layer and the metallic back contact. The one step interconnect allows the series interconnection to occur after the deposition of all layers significantly simplifying the manufacturing process. This is achieved by inkjet printing of conductive and insulative materials concurrently with depth selective laser scribes. The one step interconnect process has been shown to make effective interconnects on cadmium telluride photovoltaics with fill factors >60%. The benefits are many and include the reduction of capital equipment costs, reduced panel wastage and potentially improved material performance. The process is fully scalable and production ready.     

Long-term operational lifetime and degradation analysis of P3HT:PCBM photovoltaic cells

We study the degradation of photovoltaic cells with poly(3-hexyl thiophene) (P3HT) and (6,6)-phenyl C₆₁-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) blends under long-term continuous illumination as well as in shelf-life conditions, both in inert N₂ atmosphere. Degradation of the illuminated solar cells mainly occurs by a rapid decrease of the fill factor (FF) after 300 h, while short-circuit current and open-circuit voltage follow a linear decay after the initial burn-in. The sudden drop of the FF is correlated with an increase of the series resistance and proves irreversible upon annealing. Electrical measurements indicate that it stems from reduced charge extraction due to the photodegradation of the organic-electrode interfaces. Furthermore, as the external quantum efficiency (EQE) spectrum is evenly lowered over the entire wavelength range, we could exclude major changes in the blend morphology or significant changes to optical properties of the active layer. Introducing a thin C₆₀ layer leads to complete suppression of the FF decay over 1000 h, further proving that interface degradation dominates. Interestingly, similar improved lifetime over 1000 h was achieved by separate substitution of MoO₃ for PEDOT:PSS.     

A review of solid oxide fuel cell component fabrication methods toward lowering temperature

The solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) emerge as an alternative power generation system for high-scale stationary application and power plant station. The SOFC consumption leads to the high-efficiency energy production that forms variety of fuels up to 60% energy conversion; the operation system does not involve the burning process and minimizes the air pollution. Also, the aptitude to provide the cogenerative energy production from the heat waste during the operation process serve SOFC as an attractive green technology and environmentally friendly. However, the SOFC consumption remains limited for transportation and portable applications because the simple design of power source compartment is still the major hurdle in each SOFC component development and commercialization. Therefore, the appropriate fabrication method of each SOFC component is important to achieve the reliability of the SOFC application for the small-scale power generation design. In this paper, an overview of the design types and SOFC components and properties following electrode, electrolyte, interconnect and sealant are discussed and summarized. As the third-generation fuel cells, which entice the commercialization stage, this paper concentrates more on the fabrication method of each SOFC components that were explored including the working principle, advantage, disadvantage and several previous works on each fabrication method, which are described to finding the appropriate fabrication method toward lowering the operating temperature and develop the simple design of SOFC power sources system for the transportation and portable application. The targeted market power production of SOFC system for transportation application is about 5 kW and 250 W for portable application.     

How to design dye-sensitized solar cell modules

A precise numerical model based on Kirchhoff's laws is used in investigating dye-sensitized solar cell (DSC) modules. As the I-V curve of a small DSC is obtained, the performances of DSC modules with any geometrical character can be exactly simulated by this model. By simulation, we find that the poor synchronization of work status in each cell is the main cause of low efficiency of large area module besides the Joule losses in the resistances. The optimized geometry parameters of the DSC module are mainly influenced by the manufacturing technique rather than the performance of the small cell. Simulation shows that the large area DSC module with aperture area efficiency of 10.57% can be produced based on the small cell with efficiency of 11.1%.     

High-efficiency low-cost integral screen-printing multicrystalline silicon solar cells

This paper describes how the efficiency and throughput of industrial screen-printed multi-Si solar cells can be increased far beyond the state-of-the-art production cells. Implementation of novel processes of isotropic texturing, shallow emitter or single diffusion selective emitter, combined with screen-printed metallization fired through a PECVD SiN_x ARC layer, have been described. Novel dedicated fabrication equipment for emitter diffusion and a PECVD SiN_x deposition system are developed and implemented thereby removing the processing bottlenecks linked to the diffusion and bulk passivation processes. Several types of back-contacted solar cells with improved visual appeal required for building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) application have been developed.     

开口隔离层上多晶硅薄膜制备

在SSP硅带衬底上制备开口SiO2隔离层,在隔离层上沉积多晶硅薄膜籽晶层;然后以ZMR将制备的多晶硅薄膜区融、进行再结晶,制备了SSP隔离层上多晶硅薄膜,并制备了多晶硅薄膜电池。研究结果表明:ZMR对籽晶层的区融、结晶效果比较理想,晶粒尺寸增大到厘米级长、毫米级宽;经过晶硅薄膜沉积后,开口隔离层的孔洞未完全被多晶硅薄膜层覆盖住;制备的电池的光特性参数Voc、Isc、FF都比较低,电池的最高转换效率为3.83%;指出了改进的工艺措施。