The challenge of setting risk-based microbiological criteria for Listeria monocytogenes

After more than 20 years of work with discussing the setting of microbiological criteria for Listeria monocytogenes in foods, Codex Alimentarius on Food Hygiene has finalised a proposal that was recently adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The effort of developing procedures for making the microbiological criteria risk-based to the greatest extent possible has challenged scientists and managers during this long time period. Yet, the establishment of microbiological criteria for L. monocytogenes is still being discussed and several approaches are possible. Setting of microbiological criteria continues to be a risk management decision – even when using mathematical modelling to enhance the scientific level of a risk-based approach.     

Compatibility of the SAFE FOODS Risk Analysis Framework with the legal and institutional settings of the EU and the WTO

This paper analyses the compatibility of the SAFE FOODS recommendations with the food safety governance systems of the EU and the World Trade Organisation (WTO), in which standard setting procedures of the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) are considered most relevant. The objective is to better understand the implications from (1) the addition of formalised framing and evaluation stages to the risk analysis process and (2) the expansion of the scope of the risk assessment to comprise the distribution of risks, benefits and costs of regulatory measures. The paper concludes that these recommendations of the SAFE FOODS project are compatible to EU law provided they are fine-tuned to legal provisions on specific roles for agencies, EU Member States and the European Commission services. All recommendations are deemed largely compatible with the rules for procedure of the CAC.     

Food standards, chemicals in food and food trade

Food standards, chemicals in food and food trade were the three related topics considered by the international conference organized jointly by the World Health Organisation (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The conference, held in the FAO headquarters in Rome from 18–27 March 1991, brought together delegations from over 70 countries to discuss the issues raised and to provide guidance for the sponsoring organizations as to the direction of their future work. The conference was of major importance for the organizers and, through them, the Codex Alimentarius Commision (CAC). However, it is important to appreciate that the conference took no actual decisions about future work. It was an advisory meeting and so any decisions will be taken by other bodies after considering the recommendations made.     

HACCP-based procedures in Germany and Poland

A study concerning HACCP implementation was conducted in 86 German and 66 Polish food enterprises. The questions asked in this study addressed HACCP implementation according to the 12 steps defined by Codex Alimentarius Commission. Some deficiencies were identified. As the results show, the specification of biological hazards is frequently not sufficient to provide suitable guidance mechanisms, and to monitor the limits, and therefore, they are not in compliance with Codex Alimentarius and Regulation (EC) No 852/2004. Furthermore, a lack of consistence in defining terms (e.g. CP) leads to their diverging application in practice. Overall, the HACCP implementation in Poland was found to comply somewhat better with the Codex Alimentarius principles and Regulation (EC) No 852/2004 than in Germany.     

Food additives: recommendations for harmonization and control

The harmonization of international food standards has been a major objective of the Codex Alimentarius Commission since its creation in 1962. Since then, however, many countries have altered their approach to food legislation and have introduced more extensive food labelling legislation and a reduced level of compositional standards. This change is only slowly being reflected in the work of the Codex Commission. This review, originally written for the Codex Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants, highlights how the work of the Committee and the Codex as a whole needs to take account of these developments. International developments are reviewed and from them certain conclusions are drawn and recommendations provided for the future work of Codex. The problems of additives in the Codex context are specifically addressed and it is recommended that countries should be much more prepared to accept international scientific assessments of the safety of additives. There is also a considerable variation in the evaluation of technological need leading to further differences in the use of additives. Countries must be prepared to accept the varying needs of different countries. Clear recommendations are made for the future work of Codex.     

HACCP “train-in-action” program in the Lithuanian dairy industry

Training in the application of the HACCP method has been performed in the Lithuanian dairy industry, in the frame of a technical assistance project financed by the European Commission (PHARE Programme).The guidelines adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission for the application of the HACCP method (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) System and Guidelines for its application, Annex to CAC/RCP 1-1969, Rev. 3 (1997a), Codex Alimentarius, Supplement to vol. 1B , General Requirement (Food Hygiene).), the specific training package prepared by FAO for this purpose (Rome, 1997) and the EU directives (93/43/EEC–92/46 EEC–94/71 EEC) have been used as reference for the preparation and implementation of training activities.The programme was organised in two main phases with different and complementary training approaches. After a 4-day intensive training session on food hygiene and HACCP held for all recipients at a training centre, the project team visited each of the 10 dairy plants selected by the Lithuanian Government, to provide on-site & on-the-job training to concerned factory and government staff. Each plant was visited at least twice. First, by teams of foreign and local experts during 2–3 days. Second, by local experts only, in order to provide an additional 2–3 days input on HACCP application.The first phase (training session) was a useful preparatory exercise, but the “on-site sessions” showed that in depth understanding of the HACCP method could be better achieved through such approaches. Exercising at plant level, on practical cases, with the process lines within reach, made it possible to overcome several barriers to the transmission of information. This approach in which foreign and local experts interact during training, was also an opportunity for the recipients to understand how to comply more precisely with the national and international standards for food hygiene.     

The Codex Alimentarius guidelines on the application of general principles of food hygiene to the control of Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat foods

This is a summary of the contents of the Codex Guidelines on the control of Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat (RTE) foods and its three Annexes, including a short introduction to the Codex Alimentarius.     

Public and private standards for dried culinary herbs and spices—Part I: Standards defining the physical and chemical product quality and safety

Dried spices and culinary herbs are vulnerable products, which are used for their aroma (and colour). They are important ingredients in many processed foods, e.g. meat products, dairy products, and bakery products, and in most of our dishes. Food processors and consumers have high expectations regarding the organoleptic quality of culinary herbs and spices. Moreover, although used at relatively low amounts, herbs and spices can represent a health threat to the consumer, e.g. when contaminated with mycotoxins or adulterated with harmful colourants. The current review provides an overview from a European perspective on product standards covering (i) general physical and chemical specifications important for product quality and (ii) chemical characteristics concerning the safety of culinary herbs and spices. Focus is given to standards addressing dried culinary herbs and spices on global and European Union (EU) level. At some points, additional information on fresh herbs and on some national standards of non-EU member states is provided.General specifications for individual herbs and spices based on international agreements are developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) and are currently under development by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. Besides global standards, the review outlines product specifications for dried culinary herbs and spices that are defined by national bodies and industry associations. To reduce potential chemical hazards, specific maximum and action levels are laid down for culinary herbs and spices. In EU law, these address besides residues of pesticides certain mycotoxins, heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, and additives as described in the following.     

Practical and valid guidelines for realistic estimation of measurement uncertainty in multi-residue analysis of pesticides

To assist the understanding and adoption of measurement uncertainty principles in chemical tests, during the last decade, a number of specific guidelines have been published by EURACHEM/CITAC, EUROLAB, NORDTEST and others international bodies. All these guidelines agree that, in certain cases, the nature of the test method may preclude rigorous, metrologically and statistically valid, calculation of uncertainty of measurement, multi-residue analysis of pesticides being, without any doubt, one of these cases. In 2006, the Codex Alimentarius Commission established its guidelines on estimation of uncertainty of results for the determination of pesticide residues, which only include “empirical, practical or top-down” approaches based on whole-method performance investigations or scientific judgments from previous experience. The aim of this publication is to make a simple and comparative critical review of the most relevant international guidelines published on measurement uncertainty in both chemical analysis and pesticide residues analysis, extracting from them those proposals and practical conclusions that can be applied in a pesticide residue laboratory with full warranty and validity.     

Food standards and the control of chemicals in foods — their impact on international trade C.W. McMillan reports to the FAO/WHO conference on Food Standards, Chemicals in Food and Food Trade, Rome, Italy, 18–27 March 1991

The establishment of international standards for chemicals in foodstuffs is essential if trade disputes are to be avoided. The banning of a particular chemical by an individual country will complicate and confuse international trade, and variations in food quality standards between exporting and importing countries leads to rejection of imports and the possibility of sales to third countries with less stringent controls. The Codex Alimentarius Commission has played a vital role in the control of contaminants such as pesticides, heavy metals, food additives, microbiological contamination and antibiotic residues, and mycotoxins in grains, and this role needs to be extended in the future to embrace genetically engineered products. The Commission's aims are to harmonize and co-ordinate acceptance of international food standards, to protect consumers and to ensure fair food trade practices internationally. Its work has allowed the minization of technical barriers to trade through the control of chemicals in foods.     

The role of science in international food standards

International food trade rules, as established and agreed under the auspices of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), have enhanced the role of the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). However, the increased recognition has also led to increased pressure for the Codex to define more clearly the approach to the setting of international food standards. The paper provides an account of the discussions in Codex on three complex debates: the setting of residue limits for hormones in meat and in milk and the adoption and use of four `statements of principle' on the role of science in the Codex decision-making process. Arising from these debates, the paper looks at the role of science in the adoption of Codex standards and considers those issues, known as `other legitimate factors', which also figure in the process.     

Contamination of meat products during smoking by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Processes and prevention

Meat products may be contaminated by carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) during smoking. This review is focused in the 10 variables of the smoking process that have been studied by researchers, according to the Codex Alimentarius Commission CAC/RCP 68/2009: the type of fuel, the smoking methods (direct or indirect), the smoke generation process (temperature of pyrolysis and to airflow), the distance and position between the food and the heat source, the products fat content and its evolution, the smoking time, the temperature during smoking, the cleanliness and maintenance of equipment, the design of the smoking chamber and the equipment. A new variable reported by researchers, the casing type, is also included. The main aspects concerning PAH contamination of meat products, such as the smoking process history, types of smoking, aim and composition of smoke, PAH formation and transport mechanisms, analytical methods for PAH determination, presence of PAH in meat products worldwide and regulations, are also reported and briefly discussed.     

Emerging risk management metrics in food safety: FSO, PO. How do they apply to the mycotoxin hazard?

This review focuses on risk management issues applied to mycotoxins and, in particular, the Codex Alimentarius recommendations for microbiological hazards are considered. Mycotoxins are chemical hazards from microbiological origin, thus some parallelisms can be found. Firstly, a revision of main points regarding risk assessment is done. Then, the existing control measures for risk management of mycotoxins are reviewed and ALOP, FSO and PO concepts are introduced. Finally, an example of the application of these metrics is included: the processing of roasted pistachio is considered. The starting point was the maximum levels in Commission Regulation 1881/2006 for total aflatoxins. Having these values in mind, the process steps were individually considered and PCs determined when required. Moreover, according to these PCs, possible PcC and PdC were calculated, using previously published results. The present study demonstrates that the emerging risk management metrics, FSO, PO and PC, might be also applied to the mycotoxin hazard. The example here presented underlines the need for better and more structured information on the impact of the storage and processing steps on mycotoxins accumulation. Moreover, the problem of the impact of uncertainty in checking PO and FSO compliance was brought up.     

Towards an FSO/ALOP based food safety policy

To gain more insight in the possible process of setting a food safety objective (FSO), a concept developed by Codex Alimentarius for microbial hazards, in national food safety policy, a study was executed in the Netherlands. This Dutch study consisted of a case study regarding the process of setting a FSO for a chemical and for a microbiological hazard as well as of a theoretical study concerning the possible development of new decision-making tools. The study resulted in a model for a decision-making process that integrates life sciences, socio-economical studies and technology assessment. It also features close interaction between policymakers and researchers. As a result of the study, it is advised to install an independent advisory committee that helps government in deciding on appropriate levels of protection of the population and setting FSOs.     

Nutrition labelling of foods: comparisons between US regulations and Codex guidelines

Nutrition labelling of food impacts not only on consumers and the food industry, but on international trade as well. When requirements for food label information are similar among countries, trade is facilitated. Comparisons between recent nutrition labelling regulations issued by the USA and the international guidelines formulated by Codex Alimentarius identify not only challenges to international harmonization that require focused efforts, but also opportunities for increasing international agreement on nutrition labelling. Factors to be considered are the continued benefits of a generalized Codex guideline as well as technical issues including analytical methods, nutrients to be declared, bases for declaration, and reference values.     

HACCP plan proposal for a typical Brazilian peanut processing company

Peanuts are likely to be infested by fungi with consequent contamination by aflatoxin in post-harvest industries. A hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) plan is proposed for a typical Brazilian post-harvest industry from raw in-shell reception to the unpeeled peanuts transportation. Codex Alimentarius Commission guidelines were followed, with four critical control points (CCP) for aflatoxin being identified. The process steps with highest probability of aflatoxin occurrence (risk) are the in-shell reception, the dried in-shell storage, and the unpeeled kernel storage. During the storage steps there is a lack of control of air moisture and temperature. Therefore, there is no option but to keep rigid monitoring and control over each CCP, and detour lots with high aflatoxin levels to either oil or seed production. Attempts to correlate the aflatoxin levels with the rainfall showed an irregular trend of the toxin level.     

The risk assessment of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in cooked black tiger shrimps (Penaeus monodon) in Malaysia

A microbiological risk assessment was conducted on Vibrio parahaemolyticus in order to estimate the risk of getting infected by consuming cooked shrimps (Penaeus monodon) for Malaysians. This study was based on the risk assessment framework developed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The risk estimate was calculated by using the data generated from this study and assumptions based on data taken from reports produced by the Ministry of Health Malaysia and from other studies. The @RISK software package, version 4.5 (2005 Palisade USA) in combination with Microsoft^® Excel were used to run the simulations. All of the calculations were performed by the Monte Carlo method of simulations from specified input distributions and appropriately combining the sampled values to generate the corresponding output distributions. All simulations, consisting of 10,000 iterations were undertaken. The estimated illness per year was 123 people (aged from 18 to 59 years) for Malaysians. The 90% of distribution of illness due to the consumption of cooked shrimps lies between 49 and 197 cases per year. The incidence rate of illness/100,000 population/year (aged between 18 and 59 years) is 1.3 while 90% distribution lies between 0.5 and 2. In the case of shrimp that were cooked during meal preparation, the hazard has been significantly reduced. It is important to pay attention to temperature control during harvesting and post-harvest handling. It is also required to prevent cross-contamination during handling and preparation of shrimps and adequate cooking before consumption.     

The Cold Chain,one link in Canada’s food safety initiatives

The Cold Chain has always played an important role in food safety within the global market. The Canadian government has recognized it has an important role in the food continuum. In partnership with industry, national voluntary enhanced food safety systems, based on Codex Alimentarius (HACCP) principles, are being developed within Canada. These efforts will contribute towards food safety and will build confidence in foodstuffs grown, prepared and sold at all levels of trade and abroad.     

Evaluation of street food vendors’ hygienic practices using fast observation questionnaire

The aim of this study was to check the compliance of street food vendors hygienic practices with requirements of the Codex code of practice - general principles on food hygiene and of the Regulation (EC) No. 852/2004. The materials were 110 street food vendors located in Athens, Greece. Specially designed questionnaire allowed fast data collection. The lowest ratings were found in the hygiene of food preparation and serving, that was related to basic infrastructure, especially the protection of light bulbs from glass spreading in case of breaking, and protection of hair from falling into food by wearing sufficient hair covers or caps. Much higher ratings were found in separation of fresh food from ready-to-eat one and in the section of personal hygiene - lack of visible cuts or skin disease symptoms on hands. One of the most interesting findings is that street vendors selling meat or fish meals obtained higher ratings than vegetable or fruit ones. A greater effort should be made to increase hygiene level especially in the case of small mobile food vendors. Because of variation in hygiene level there is a need for more inspections covering greater number of street food vendors. Due to high popularity of street food and its importance for tourism, more effort should be made to improve the degree of compliance with the hygiene requirements. The fast observation questionaire used in this study allowed rapid assessment of implementation of hygiene principles. Further research is needed to explain why, despite food safety authorities licencing and inspection, implementation of hygiene principles by street food vendors is often incomplete and what factors affect the correct operation.     

Assessment of microbiological quality of raw fruit juice vended in Dar es Salaam city,Tanzania

Fresh fruit juices are highly nutritious food for human but the hygiene involved during preparation, packaging and storage make fresh juices prone to microbial contamination. This study was conducted to assess bacterial quality and establish the risk factors for contamination of raw fruit juices vended in Dar es Salaam city, Tanzania. Ninety fruit juice vendors were assessed for possible factors of microbial contamination in fruit juices. One juice sample per vendor was collected for microbial analysis using standard laboratory protocols of International Standards Organisation (ISO), Tanzania Bureau of Standards and Codex specifications. The results showed that the total plate counts (TPC) ranged between 2.32 and 8.54 (Log cfu/ml). About 72.2% of juice samples had TPC above Codex recommended maximum levels (3.7–4.7 Log cfu/ml). The prevalence of Escherichia coli in the juices was 80% with a range between 0.0 and 5.0 (Log MPN/ml) suggesting of direct faecal contamination or contamination from the environment. All samples were negative for Salmonella species. Risk factors for high TPC and E. coli counts which were statistically significant (P < 0.05) included type of juice, extraction methods, vending sites, storage containers and sex of the vendors. Generally, 78.9% of preparation and vending premises were unhygienic and encouraged contamination of the juices. It is concluded that, the overall handling, preparation practices and bacterial quality of unpasteurized fruit juices vended in Dare es Salaam city are poor. The government should educate the vendors on food safety and hygiene as well as enforcing regular monitoring of the quality of street fruit juices.