Influence of modified carbon nanotube on physical properties and crystallization behavior of poly(ethylene terephthalate) nanocomposite

Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) nanocomposites reinforced with a very small quantity of modified carbon nanotube (CNT) were prepared by melt compounding using a twin‐screw extruder. The introduction of carboxylic acid groups on the surfaces of the nanotube leads to the enhanced interactions between the nanotube and the polymer matrix through hydrogen bonding formation. The thermal stability, mechanical, and rheological properties of the PET nanocomposites are strongly dependent on the interfacial interactions between the PET and the modified CNT as well as the dispersion of the modified CNT in the PET. The introduction of the nanotube can significantly influence the non‐isothermal crystallization behavior of the PET nanocomposites. This study demonstrates that a very small quantity of the modified CNT can substantially improve the thermal stability and mechanical properties of the PET nanocomposites, depending on the dispersion of the modified CNT and the interfacial interactions between the polymer matrix and the modified CNT. POLYM. COMPOS., 2010. © 2009 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Thermal decomposition behavior of carbon‐nanotube‐reinforced poly(ethylene 2,6‐naphthalate) nanocomposites

Polymer nanocomposites based on poly (ethylene 2,6‐naphthalate) (PEN) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were prepared by direct melt blending with a twin‐screw extruder. Dynamic thermogravimetric analysis was conducted on the PEN/CNT nanocomposites to clarify the effect of CNTs on the thermal decomposition behavior of the polymer nanocomposites. The thermal decomposition kinetics of the PEN/CNT nanocomposites was strongly dependent on the CNT content, the heating rate, and the gas atmosphere. On the basis of the thermal decomposition kinetic analysis, the variation of the activation energy for thermal decomposition revealed that a very small quantity of CNTs substantially improved the thermal stability and thermal decomposition of the PEN/CNT nanocomposites. Morphological observations demonstrated the formation of interconnected or network‐like structures of CNTs in the PEN matrix. The unique character of the CNTs introduced into the PEN matrix, such as the physical barrier effect of CNTs during thermal decomposition and the formation of interconnected or network‐like structures of CNTs, resulted in the enhancement of the thermal stability of the PEN/CNT nanocomposites. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2009     

The effect of carbon nanotube on the physical properties of poly(butylene terephthalate) nanocomposite by simple melt blending

Polyester nanocomposites based on poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT) and carbon nanotube (CNT) were prepared by simple melt blending using a twin‐screw extruder. There is significant dependence of the thermal, rheological, and mechanical properties of the PBT nanocomposites on the concentration and dispersion state of CNT. The storage and loss moduli of the PBT nanocomposites increased with increasing frequency, and this enhancing effect was more pronounced at lower frequency region. The nonterminal behavior for the PBT nanocomposites was attributed to the nanotube–nanotube or polymer–nanotube interactions, and the dominant nanotube–nanotube interactions at high CNT content resulted in the formation of the interconnected network‐like structures of CNT in the PBT nanocomposites. The incorporation of a small quantity of CNT into the PBT matrix can substantially improve the mechanical properties, the heat distortion temperature, and the thermal stability of the PBT nanocomposites. The unique character of CNT dispersed in the PBT matrix resulted in the physical barrier effect against the thermal decomposition, leading to the improvement in the thermal stability of the PBT nanocomposites. This study also provides a design guide of CNT‐reinforced PBT nanocomposites with a great potential for industrial uses. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2009     

Synergetic effect of cyanogen functionalized carbon nanotube and graphene on the mechanical and thermal properties of poly (arylene ether nitrile)

Cyanogen functionalized carbon nanotube and graphene/poly (arylene ether nitrile) (CNT-CN/GN-CN/PEN) nanocomposite films were prepared by a facile solution casting method. The weight ratio of CNT-CN/GN-CN was varied from CNT-dominated to GN-dominated for the purpose of investigating their synergetic effects on the mechanical and thermal properties of PEN nanocomposites. Consequently, GN-CN/PEN composites demonstrated better mechanical and thermal properties than CNT-CN/PEN composites due to larger contact area between GN-CN and PEN matrix. Nevertheless, all CNT-CN/GN-CN/PEN composites exhibit enhanced mechanical properties than those of GN-only nanocomposites. With the increasing of CNT-CN/GN-CN weight ratio, the mechanical properties of CNT-CN/GN-CN/PEN composites increase, then decrease, and reach their maximums when CNT-CN/GN-CN weight ratio is around 4/4. From scanning electron microscope images, it is found that around that point GN-CN is flatly dispersed and CNT-CN is penetrated into GN-CN, capable of transferring stress load and thus decreasing interface loss. Thermal properties of CNT-CN/GN-CN/PEN composites once again confirmed the joint effect of CNT-CN and GN-CN, leading to improved thermal properties. In short, a synergistic effect between one-dimensional (1-D) CNT and two-dimensional (2-D) GN on the mechanical and thermal properties of nanocomposites have been demonstrated in these systems.     

Crystallization behaviors and mechanical properties of poly(ethylene 2,6‐naphthalate)/multiwall carbon nanotube nanocomposites

Carbon nanotube (CNT)‐reinforced poly(ethylene 2,6‐naphthalate) (PEN) nanocomposites were prepared by direct melt blending process in a twin‐screw extruder. There is significant dependence of the crystallization and melting behavior of PEN/CNT nanocomposites on CNT content and crystallization temperature. The incorporation of CNT may favor the formation of the β‐form crystals in PEN/CNT nanocomposites, and more CNT content amplified this effect. In this PEN/CNT nanocomposite system, the CNT promoted the nucleation and the growth with higher crystallization rate of PEN/CNT nanocomposites, and simultaneously reduced the fold surface free energy and the work required in folding polymer chains in the polymer nanocomposites. In addition, the incorporation of a very small quantity of CNT significantly improved the mechanical properties of PEN/CNT nanocomposites. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 47:1715–1723, 2007. © 2007 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Facile preparation of modified carbon nanotube‐reinforced PBT nanocomposites with enhanced thermal,flame retardancy,and mechanical properties

In this study, the carbon nanotube was modified by inorganic acids to introduce the carboxylic acid groups on the surface. The modified carbon nanotube (m‐CNT)‐reinforced poly(1,4‐butylene terephthalate) (PBT) nanocomposites were prepared through melt blending method. Morphological observations revealed that the m‐CNT particles were homogeneously dispersed in PBT matrix. Differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) analysis showed that a very small quantity of m‐CNT can significantly increase the crystallization temperature of PBT. The improvement of thermal stability and tensile strength/modulus of the nanocomposites strongly depended on the uniform dispersion of m‐CNT and the interactions between m‐CNT and PBT through hydrogen‐bonding formation. In the cone calorimeter testing, the PHRR decreased from 1189 kW/m² for neat PBT to 737 kW/m² for PBT/0.9m‐CNT containing 0.9 wt% m‐CNT with a reduction of 38%. The remarkable enhancement of flame retardancy properties was attributed to the condensed‐phase effect acted by the m‐CNT. POLYM. COMPOS., 37:1812–1820, 2016. © 2014 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Modification of carbon nanotubes and its effect on properties of carbon nanotube/epoxy nanocomposites

We have studied an effect of three types of modifications of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) on dispersion and mechanical properties of final epoxy‐amine based nanocomposites. First approach includes end‐walled covalent chemical modification at the ends of nanotubes. The second one is side‐walled covalent chemical modification along the whole length of nanotubes. The third procedure is noncovalent, physical modification done by the CNT surface coating with polyaniline. The modification of nanotubes was determined by X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The prepared epoxy‐amine nanocomposites were characterized by dynamic‐mechanical analysis, tensile testing, light microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and thermogravimetry. We observed an improvement of the mechanical properties and the thermal stability by addition of the carbon nanotubes to the epoxy matrix. The strong interactions between the nanotube and the polymer matrix were discovered in the nanocomposites with physically modified nanotubes. POLYM. COMPOS., 2009. © 2008 Society of Plastics Engineers     

In situ preparation of polyimide/amino‐functionalized carbon nanotube composites and their properties

In order to improve the dispersion of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in polyimide (PI) matrix and the interfacial interaction between CNTs and PI, 4,4′‐diaminodiphenyl ether (ODA)‐functionalized carbon nanotubes (CNTs‐ODA) were synthesized by oxidation and amidation reactions. The structures and morphologies of CNTs‐ODA were characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectrometer, transmission electron microscopy, and thermal gravimetric analysis. Then a series of polyimide/amino‐functionalized carbon nanotube (PI/CNT‐ODA) nanocomposites were prepared by in situ polymerization. CNTs‐ODA were homogeneously dispersed in PI matrix. The influence of CNT‐ODA content on mechanical properties of PI/CNT‐ODA nanocomposites was investigated. It was found that the mechanical properties of nanocomposites were enhanced with the increase in CNT‐ODA loading. When the content of CNTs‐ODA was 3 wt%, the tensile strength of PI/CNT‐ODA nanocomposites was up to 169.07 MPa (87.11% higher than that of neat PI). The modulus of PI/CNTs‐ODA was increased by 62.64%, while elongation at break was increased by 66.05%. The improvement of the mechanical properties of PI/CNT‐ODA nanocomposites were due to the strong chemical bond and interfacial interaction between CNTs‐ODA and PI matrix. POLYM. COMPOS., 35:1952–1959, 2014. © 2014 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Effect of flow induced alignment on the thermal conductivity of injection molded carbon nanotube‐filled polystyrene nanocomposites

Carbon nanotube (CNT) nanocomposites with a polystyrene thermoplastic matrix were injection molded and the high shear stress exerted during the injection process partially enabled the alignment of the CNTs in the flow direction. Nanocomposites with different CNT loadings and degrees of alignment were produced, and their thermal conductivities were measured based on ASTM D5470. The results were compared with compression molded samples featuring random alignments of CNTs. The results showed that the injection molded samples possessed anisotropic thermal conductivities, due to the partial alignment of the CNTs in the flow direction. The effective medium approach was used to analytically estimate the thermal conductivity of the molded samples. Good agreement was observed between the experimental and analytically simulated results in lower CNT concentrations (less than 5 wt% of CNT). Using transmission electron microscopy pictures taken of the nanocomposites, the alignment of CNTs in the thermoplastic matrix were modeled; and their thermal conductivities were simulated using the finite element method. Good agreement was observed between the experiments and simulated results. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 55:753–762, 2015. © 2014 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Thermal decomposition behavior of poly(ethylene 2,6‐naphthalate)/silica nanocomposites

Poly(ethylene 2,6‐naphthalate) (PEN) nanocomposites reinforced with silica nanoparticles were prepared by direct melt compounding. Dynamic thermogravimetric analysis was conducted on the PEN/silica nanocomposites to clarify the effect of silica nanoparticle on the thermal decomposition behavior of the resultant nanocomposites. There is a significant dependence of thermal decomposition behavior for PEN/silica nanocomposites on the content of silica nanoparticles and heating rate. The variation of the activation energy for thermal decomposition reflected the improvement of the thermal stability of the PEN/silica nanocomposites. The unique characteristics of silica nanoparticles resulted in physical barrier effect against the thermal decomposition, leading to the enhancement of the thermal stability of the PEN/silica nanocomposites. The incorporation of silica nanoparticles into the PEN matrix increased the storage modulus of the PEN/silica nanocomposites and made it possible for them to sustain higher modulus at higher temperature relative to pure PEN. POLYM. COMPOS., 2009. © 2009 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Aramid–multiwalled carbon nanotube nanocomposites: effect of compatibilization through oligomer wrapping of the nanotubes

Aramid–multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) nanocomposites with different CNT loadings were prepared by the solution‐blending technique. Aramid oligomeric chains having reactive amine end‐groups were covalently grafted and wrapped over the surface of acid‐functionalized MWCNTs. The presence of functional groups and surface modification of MWCNTs were studied using Raman, Fourier transform infrared and X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopic and transmission/scanning electron microscopic techniques. Addition of these MWCNTs resulted in a homogeneous dispersion throughout the aramid matrix. Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis showed an increase in the storage modulus and the glass transition temperature involved with α‐relaxations on CNT loading. The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of aramid was reduced on loading with such CNTs. Strong interfacial interactions of the matrix with the surface‐modified CNTs reduced the stress‐transfer problem in the composite material and resulted in higher modulus of 4.26 GPa and a glass transition temperature of 338.5 °C, whereas the CTE was reduced to 101.8 ppm °C^?1 on addition of only 2.5 wt% CNTs in the aramid matrix. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry     

The characteristics of carbon nanotube‐reinforced poly(phenylene sulfide) nanocomposites

Multiwall carbon nanotube reinforced poly (phenylene sulfide) (PPS) nanocomposites were successfully fabricated through melt compounding. Structural, electrical, thermal, rheological, and mechanical properties of the nanocomposites were systematically studied as a function of carbon nanotube (CNT) fraction. Electrical conductivity of the polymer was dramatically enhanced at low loading level of the nanotubes; the electrical percolation threshold lay between 1 and 2 wt % of the CNTs. Rheological properties of the PPS nanocomposites also showed a sudden change with the CNT fraction; the percolation threshold was in the range of 0–0.5 wt % of CNTs. The difference in electrical and rheological percolation threshold was mainly due to the different requirements needed in the carbon nanotube network in different stages. The crystallization and melting behavior of CNT‐filled PPS nanocomposites were studied with differential scanning calorimetry; no new crystalline form of PPS was observed in the nanocomposites, but the crystallization rate was reduced. The thermal and mechanical properties of the nanocomposites were also investigated, and both of them showed significant increase with CNT fraction. For 5 wt % of CNT‐filled PPS composite, the onset of degradation temperature increased by about 13.5°C, the modulus increased by about 33%, and tensile strength increased by about 172%. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2009     

Synthesis of hierarchical nanohybrid CNT@Ni-PS and its applications in enhancing the tribological,curing and thermal properties of epoxy nanocomposites

Poor interfacial adhesion and dispersity severely obstruct the continued development of carbon nanotube (CNT)-reinforced epoxy (EP) for potential applications. Herein, hierarchical CNT nanohybrids using nickel phyllosilicate (Ni-PS) as surface decorations (CNT@Ni-PS) were synthesized, and the nanocomposites derived from varied mass fractions of EP and CNT@Ni-PS were prepared. The morphological structures, tribological performances, curing behaviors and thermal properties of EP/CNT@Ni-PS nanocomposites were carefully investigated. Results show that hierarchical CNT nanohybrids with homogeneous dispersion and well-bonded interfacial adhesion in the matrix are successfully obtained, presenting significantly improved thermal and tribological properties. Moreover, analysis on cure kinetics proves the excellent promotion of CNT@Ni-PS on the non-isothermal curing process, lowering the curing energy barrier steadily.     

Influence of rubber content on mechanical,thermal, and morphological behavior of natural rubber toughened poly(lactic acid)–multiwalled carbon nanotube nanocomposites

The effects of natural rubber (NR) on the mechanical, thermal, and morphological properties of multiwalled carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforced poly(lactic acid) (PLA) nanocomposites prepared by melt blending were investigated. A PLA/NR blend and PLA/CNT nanocomposites were also produced for comparison. The tensile strength and Young's modulus of PLA/CNT nanocomposites improved significantly, whereas the impact strength decreased compared to neat PLA. The incorporation of NR into PLA/CNT significantly improved the impact strength and elongation at break of the nanocomposites, which showed approximately 200% and 850% increases at 20 wt % NR, respectively. However, the tensile strength and Young's modulus of PLA/NR/CNT nanocomposites decreased compared to PLA/CNT nanocomposites. The morphology analysis showed the homogeneous dispersion of NR particles in PLA/NR/CNT nanocomposites, while CNTs preferentially reside in the NR phase rather than the PLA matrix. In addition, the incorporation of NR into PLA/CNT lowered the thermal stability and glass‐transition temperature of the nanocomposites. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016 , 133, 44344.     

Thermal conductivity of carbon nanotubes and their polymer nanocomposites: A review

Thermally conductive polymer composites offer new possibilities for replacing metal parts in several applications, including power electronics, electric motors and generators, heat exchangers, etc., thanks to the polymer advantages such as light weight, corrosion resistance and ease of processing. Current interest to improve the thermal conductivity of polymers is focused on the selective addition of nanofillers with high thermal conductivity. Unusually high thermal conductivity makes carbon nanotube (CNT) the best promising candidate material for thermally conductive composites. However, the thermal conductivities of polymer/CNT nanocomposites are relatively low compared with expectations from the intrinsic thermal conductivity of CNTs. The challenge primarily comes from the large interfacial thermal resistance between the CNT and the surrounding polymer matrix, which hinders the transfer of phonon dominating heat conduction in polymer and CNT.This article reviews the status of worldwide research in the thermal conductivity of CNTs and their polymer nanocomposites. The dependence of thermal conductivity of nanotubes on the atomic structure, the tube size, the morphology, the defect and the purification is reviewed. The roles of particle/polymer and particle/particle interfaces on the thermal conductivity of polymer/CNT nanocomposites are discussed in detail, as well as the relationship between the thermal conductivity and the micro- and nano-structure of the composites.     

Indentation size effect and wear characteristics of spark plasma sintered,hard MWCNT/Al2O3 nanocomposites

Magnesia doped multiwalled carbon nanotube (CNT)/α-alumina nanocomposites have been fabricated by spark plasma sintering at 1500°C under 50 MPa in argon. Owing to combined grain refining effect of nanotube and magnesia, nanocomposites possessed smaller matrix grains and extensively lower matrix crystallites than pure alumina. Thermal expansion mismatch between matrix and filler rendered up to four times higher compressive lattice microstrain to the nanocomposites over pure alumina. Despite very low CNT loading (e.g. 0·13?wt-%), nanocomposites offered considerably higher hardness (as high as 24·42?GPa), negligible indentation size effect (Meyer exponent?=?1·906???1·941) and enhanced elastic response over pure alumina. Up to 0·27?wt-% nanotube loading, much higher wear resistance was observed for the nanocomposites over pure alumina. The presence of uniformly dispersed and structurally intact nanotubes coupled with lower matrix grains and crystallites having compressive lattice strain were the key factors behind achieving such improved mechanical properties of the present nanocomposites.     

Graphene nanoplatelet‐reinforced semi‐crystal poly(arylene ether nitrile) nanocomposites prepared by the twin‐screw extrusion

Graphene nanoplatelet reinforced semi‐crystal poly(arylene ether nitrile) (PEN/GN) nanocomposites were prepared by an economically and environmentally friendly method of twin‐screw extrusion technique. The feasibility of using PEN/GN nanocomposites was investigated by evaluating their thermal behaviors, mechanical, and morphological properties. Thermal studies revealed that GN could act as nucleating agents but decreased the whole crystallinity in/of PEN/GN nanocomposites. Mechanical investigation manifested that GN had both strengthening effect (increase in flexural modulus and strength) and toughening effect (rise in the elongation and impact strength) on the mechanical performance of semi‐crystal PEN nanocomposites. Heat treatment can further increase their mechanical performances due to the increased crystallinity and release of inner stress. With the small addition of GN (<5 wt%), the morphology of PEN was changed from brittle to ductile, and GN showed good dispersion and adhesion in/to the PEN matrix. This work shows that in the semi‐crystal polymer/filler systems, besides the dispersion states of fillers and interactions between fillers and polymer matrices, the crystallinity of the nanocomposites affected by the existence of filler and the residual stress are also two key factors determining the mechanical properties. POLYM. COMPOS., 35:404–411, 2014. © 2013 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Comparative performance of carbon nanotube and nanoclay on thermal properties and flammability behavior of amorphous polyamide/SEBS blend

Multiwall carbon nanotubes (CNT) or montmorillonite clay (MMT-30B) were added to a poly(hexamethylene isophthalamide-co-terephthalamine) (an amorphous polyamide - aPA) and styrene-ethylene/butylene-styrene graphitized with maleic anhydride (SEBS) blend, in different concentrations, in order to investigate the morphology, thermal properties and flammability behavior. Different nanoparticle localizations in the phase blend were observed through transmission electronic microscopy. CNT nanoparticles are localized in SEBS phase, and MMT-30B nanoparticles in aPA phase. No significant changes were observed on transition temperatures and thermal stability with both nanoparticle additions. However, a slight increase on storage modulus for clay nanocomposites and a slight reduction for carbon nanotube nanocomposites were observed, due to their different phase localizations. Regarding flammability, CNT nanocomposites showed better performance as a flame retardant when compared to samples with MMT-30B. Although the MMT-30B nanocomposites could not be classified according to the UL-94 criteria, no dripped flaming particles were observed, due to the a char barrier formation on the polymer surface. The CNT nanocomposites were classified according to the UL-94 criteria as V-2. The CNT's selective localization on the SEBS phase decreases its heat-release rate, but no interconnected network structure was formed in the matrix to suppress the dripping flaming particles.     

Thermal decomposition behavior of carbon nanotube reinforced thermotropic liquid crystalline polymers

Thermotropic liquid crystalline polymers (TLCP), 4‐hydroxybenzoic acid (HBA)/6‐hydroxyl‐2‐naphthoic acid (HNA) copolyester, and HNA/hydroxylbenzoic acid (HAA)/terephthalic acid (TA) copolyester reinforced by carbon nanotube (CNT) were prepared by melt compounding using Hakke internal mixer. The thermal behavior and degradation of CNT reinforced HBA/HNA copolyester and HNA/HAA/TA copolyester have been investigated by dynamic thermogravimetric analysis under nitrogen atmosphere in the temperature range 30 to 800°C to study the effect of CNT on the thermal decomposition behavior of the TLCP/CNT nanocomposites. The thermal decomposition temperature at the maximum rate, residual yield, integral procedural decomposition temperature, and activation energy for thermal decomposition was studied to investigate thermal stability of TLCP/CNT nanocomposites. The thermal stability of CNT reinforced HBA/HNA copolyester was increased by addition of a very small quantity of CNT and the residual weight was 42.4% and increased until 50.8% as increasing CNT contents. However, the thermal stability of CNT reinforced HNA/HAA/TA copolyester was decreased initially when a very small quantity of CNT added. The residual weight was decreased from 50.4% to 45.1%. After addition of CNTs in the TLCP matrix, the thermal stability of CNT reinforced HNA/HAA/TA copolyester increased as increasing content of CNT and the residual weight was increased until 53% as increasing CNT contents. The activation energy was calculated by multiple heating rate equations such as Friedman, Flynn‐Wall‐Ozawa, Kissinger, and Kim‐Park methods to confirm the effect of CNT in two different TLCP matrices. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011     

Thermoplastic vulcanizate nanocomposites based on polyethylene/reclaimed rubber: A correlation between carbon nanotube dispersion state and electrical percolation threshold

A three-step melt blending process was utilized to produce linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE)/reclaimed rubber (RR)/carbon nanotube (CNT) nanocomposites in the presence of maleic anhydride grafted polyethylene as a compatibilizer. The effect of LLDPE/RR ratio and CNT content on the morphological, thermal, mechanical, and rheological behavior of these dynamically vulcanized LLDPE/RR nanocomposites were investigated. The morphological study showed that the RR was dispersed in the LLDPE matrix, and CNT addition led to an improved morphology as smaller RR sizes inside LLDPE were observed. The mechanical results revealed that increasing the RR content decreased the hardness, modulus of elasticity, and elongation at break while CNT improved the tensile properties and other mechanical properties. The differential scanning calorimeter analysis showed that the CNT improved the LLDPE crystallization by acting as nucleation agents. Dynamic mechanical analysis showed higher storage modulus and lower loss factor as compared to the neat blend due to mobility restrictions of the polymer chains induced by the presence of CNT. For the conditions studied, the electrical percolation threshold was found to occur at a very low CNT concentration (about 1 wt %) compared to the literature because of the specific structure produced leading to CNT residing in the LLDPE matrix and at the interface between both polymeric phases. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2019 , 136, 47795.