An evaluation of the specific deterrent effects of vehicle impoundment on suspended, revoked, and unlicensed drivers in California

There have been a number of studies conducted during the past two decades that convincingly demonstrate that license suspension and revocation are some of the most effective countermeasures currently available for attenuating the traffic safety risk of problem drivers. At the same time, it is also known that most suspended/revoked (S/R) drivers violate their illegal driving status and continue to drive, accruing traffic convictions and becoming involved in crashes. In an attempt to strengthen license actions and to better control S/R and unlicensed drivers, California enacted two laws effective January 1995 which provide for the impoundment and forfeiture of vehicles driven by S/R and unlicensed drivers. The study described in this paper evaluates the impact of vehicle impoundment on the 1-year subsequent driving behavior of S/R and unlicensed drivers who experience this sanction. The results show that drivers with no prior convictions for driving while S/R or unlicensed whose vehicles were impounded have, relative to similar drivers whose vehicles were not impounded: 23.8% fewer driving while suspended/revoked or unlicensed convictions; 18.1% fewer traffic convictions; and 24.7% fewer crashes. The differences between the impound and no-impound groups are even larger when the driving records of repeat offenders (i.e. drivers with prior driving-while-S/R or unlicensed convictions) are examined. Repeat offenders whose vehicles are impounded have 34.2% fewer driving-while-S/R or unlicensed convictions, 22.3% fewer traffic convictions and 37.6% fewer crashes. These findings provide strong support for impounding vehicles driven by S/R and unlicensed drivers.     

Effects of license revocation on drunk-driving offenders

Revoking or suspending the licenses of persons convicted of driving while intoxicated has often been claimed to be uniquely effective in reducing subsequent dangerous driving, as indexed by crashes and violations. This finding holds despite the impression that many suspended and revoked drivers continue to drive illegally. The research described here inquires into the operation of license actions. It uses intensive personal interviews with offenders to obtain information concerning the nature and amount of illegal driving and the effects of license deprivation on employment and other aspects of the offenders' lives.     

Interaction between socio-demographic characteristics: Traffic rule violations and traffic crash history for young drivers

Young drivers’ high traffic violation involvement rate and significant contribution to traffic crashes compared to older drivers creates the need for detailed analyses of factors affecting young drivers’ behaviors. This study is based on survey data collected from 2,057 18–29 year old young adults. Data were collected via face-to-face questionnaire surveys in four different cities in Turkey. The main objective of this study is to identify the relationship between socio-demographic characteristics, traffic rule violations, and traffic crashes among young drivers. Four main traffic rule violations are examined: red light violations, seat belt violations, speeding, and driving under the influence of alcohol, which are decisive in determining driving behavior and traffic crashes. The survey investigates the socio-demographic characteristics, traffic rule violation behavior and traffic crash histories of young adults. Four hypothetical scenarios were prepared for each traffic rule violation and data from the scenarios were modeled using the ordered probit model. Significant variables affecting each traffic rule violation are stated. Finally, significant variables that interact with crash involvements were investigated with binary logit models. According to the data analysis, 23.9% of drivers stated that they were involved in at least one traffic crash within the last three years. This crash rate increases to 38.3% for those who received at least one traffic citation/violation in last three years and peaks to 47.4% for those who were fined for seat belt violations in last three years.     

Fatal red light crashes: the role of race and ethnicity

There is an increasing number of motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) in the U.S. that occur at intersections. Noncompliance with traffic signals is one of the causes for such increase. In this study, we focused on Hispanic drivers. It has been shown that failing to follow traffic laws and regulations is a major cause of MVCs in Latin America. Does this driving behavior in Latin America correspond to the Hispanic community in the U.S.? Are U.S. Hispanics more likely to die in a red light incident? Are Hispanics more likely to be red light runners than other racial/ethnic groups in the U.S.? We answered these questions by taking advantage of a 1990-1996 Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) file with additional racial/ethnic information. Overall, we found no differences between African-American, White, and Hispanic drivers regarding red light running. We found that drinking and driving was the most important factor for red light running. However, we found evidence that some Hispanic subgroups may be more vulnerable to red light running. One such subgroup is formed by Hispanics who have no valid driver license and no record of previous driver license suspension. This study is the first to apply national, archival data to document the relevance of race/ethnicity to the red light running problem, and we hope that it might serve as an incentive for more research on this area.     

Vehicle impoundment regulations as a means for reducing traffic-violations and road accidents in Israel

The vehicle impoundment sanction in Israel is applicable to several violations, and authorizes police officers to impound a vehicle for period of 30 days, in addition to license suspension. This study examined the effects of vehicle impoundment on traffic-violations and road accidents in Israel, using both subjective and objective measures. A telephone survey was administered to 378 impounded drivers, examining their knowledge and support of the impoundment penalty, as well as the impoundment's effect on their daily life and subsequent driving behaviors. Survey results indicated most impounded drivers did not recognize the violations to which impoundment applies. Respondents described the impoundment experience as one, which interfered with a variety of daily life aspects, and eventually lead them to the adoption of safer driving behaviors. Additionally, data analysis of police records was performed on 1549 impounded drivers and 1354 controls with matching violations performed prior to the application of the impoundment regulation, comparing accident and traffic-violations involvement in the subsequent year. Results indicated that impoundment failed to yield a significant effect over subsequent accident involvement, compared to previous sanctions. A comparison of subsequent traffic-violations indicated lower rates of violations following impoundment as compared with previous sanctions. Specifically, drivers whose vehicle was impounded were less likely to commit traffic violations in the following year than drivers subjected to other sanctions. The results are explained according to psychological behavioral theories of punishment effectiveness. These findings provide further support for impoundment as a deterrent for several traffic-violations.     

Prevalence and characteristics of red light running crashes in the United States

About 40% of motor vehicle crashes occur at intersections. In recent years, the number of crashes at traffic signals has increased considerably. A major cause of such crashes is drivers disregarding traffic signals. Despite concerns about the frequent occurrence of red light violations and the significant crash consequences, relatively little is known about the overall prevalence and characteristics of red light running crashes. The present study examines the prevalence of red light running crashes on a national basis and identifies the characteristics of such crashes and the drivers involved. Cities with especially high rates of fatal red light running crashes are identified. Countermeasures to reduce red light running crashes based on collision patterns and characteristics of drivers involved are discussed. It was estimated that about 260 000 red light running crashes occur annually in the United States, of which approximately 750 result in fatalities. Comparisons were made between red light running drivers and drivers deemed not to have run red lights in these same crashes. As a group, red light runners were more likely than other drivers to be younger than age 30, male, have prior moving violations and convictions for driving while intoxicated, have invalid driver’s licenses, and have consumed alcohol prior to the crash. Comparisons also were made between characteristics of red light runners involved in daytime and nighttime crashes. Nighttime red light runners were more likely than daytime runners to be young, male, and have more deviant characteristics, 53% having high blood alcohol concentrations.     

Personality and attitudes as predictors of risky driving among older drivers

Although there are several studies on the effects of personality and attitudes on risky driving among young drivers, related research in older drivers is scarce. The present study assessed a model of personality-attitudes-risky driving in a large sample of active older drivers. A cross-sectional design was used, and structured and anonymous questionnaires were completed by 485 older Italian drivers (Mean age = 68.1, SD = 6.2, 61.2% males). The measures included personality traits, attitudes toward traffic safety, risky driving (errors, lapses, and traffic violations), and self-reported crash involvement and number of issued traffic tickets in the last 12 months. Structural equation modeling showed that personality traits predicted both directly and indirectly traffic violations, errors, and lapses. More positive attitudes toward traffic safety negatively predicted risky driving. In turn, risky driving was positively related to self-reported crash involvement and higher number of issued traffic tickets. Our findings suggest that theoretical models developed to account for risky driving of younger drivers may also apply in the older drivers, and accordingly be used to inform safe driving interventions for this age group.     

The traffic safety impact of alcohol abuse treatment as an alternative to mandated licensing controls

Driving records were compared for drivers who were convicted of multiple driving-under-the-influence offenses (DUI). Two groups of drivers were identified in four demonstration counties which offered a 12-month alcohol abuse treatment program as an alternative to mandatory license suspension or revocation. The first group participated in the program and thereby retained their driving privilege while the second did not participate thus receiving the mandated licensing action. Since legislation prevented drivers from being randomly assigned to treatment or licensing action, a third group of suspended or revoked drivers were identified in four systematically selected comparison counties. Analysis of covariance and survival rate analytical procedures were employed to analyze the driving records 12 months subsequent to their entrance into the alcohol abuse treatment program or receipt of the licensing action. In general it was found that the multiple offender alcohol abuse treatment program, during the period of treatment, demonstrated no advantages over mandatory licensing controls.     

Taking a look behind the wheel: An investigation into the personality predictors of aggressive driving

The present study evaluated a theoretical model of the relationships among six aspects of driver personality (i.e., driving anger and the Big Five personality factors), aggressive driving, and two outcomes of aggressive driving: motor vehicle crashes and moving violations. Data from 308 drivers recruited from two vehicle licensing offices were analyzed using structural equation modeling. As expected, aggressive driving predicted crashes and moving violations. Based on the zero-order correlations, emotional stability, agreeableness, and conscientiousness were related to aggressive driving in the expected directions; however, the picture changed when the joint effects of all variables were examined via structural equation modeling. A model in which driver personality predicted aggressive driving, which in turn predicted crashes and moving violations was supported. Drivers who were high on driving anger and low on agreeableness reported driving more aggressively. Implications for traffic safety professionals and researchers are discussed.     

The effect of traffic tickets on road traffic crashes

Road traffic crashes are globally a leading cause of death. The current study tests the effect of traffic tickets issued to drivers on subsequent crashes, using a unique dataset that overcomes some shortcomings of previous studies. The study takes advantage of a national longitudinal dataset at the individual level that merges Israeli census data with data on traffic tickets issued by the police and official data on involvement in road traffic crashes over seven years. The results show that the estimated probability of involvement in a subsequent fatal or severe crash was more than eleven times higher for drivers with six traffic tickets per year compared to those with one ticket per year, while controlling for various confounders. However, the majority of fatal and severe crashes involved the larger population of drivers who received up to one ticket on average per year. The current findings indicate that reducing traffic violations may contribute significantly to crash and injury reduction. In addition, mass random enforcement programs may be more effective in reducing fatal and severe crashes than targeting high-risk recidivist drivers.     

The association between opioid analgesics and unsafe driving actions preceding fatal crashes

Currently, most epidemiological research into the impact of opioid analgesics on road safety has focused on the association between opioid use and traffic crash occurrence. Yet, the role of opioid analgesics on crash responsibility is still not properly understood. Therefore, we examined the impact of opioid analgesics on drivers (all had a confirmed BAC = 0) involved in fatal crashes (1993-2006) using a case-control design based on data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System. Cases had one or more crash-related unsafe driving actions (UDA) recorded; controls had none. We calculated adjusted odds ratios (ORs) of any UDA by medication exposure after controlling for age, sex, other medications, and driving record. Compared to drivers who tested negative for opioid analgesics, female drivers who tested positive demonstrated increased odds of performing an UDA from ages 25 (OR: 1.35; 95% CI: 1.05; 1.74) to 55 (OR: 1.30; 95% CI: 1.07; 1.58). For male drivers this was true from ages 25 (OR: 1.66; 95% CI: 1.32; 2.09) to 65 (OR: 1.39; 95% CI: 1.17; 1.67). The detection of opioid analgesics was not associated with greater risk of an UDA for older drivers. Research is necessary to examine why these age differences exist, and if possible, to ensure that opioid analgesics do not contribute to crashes.     

The impact of high-risk drivers and benefits of limiting their driving degree of freedom

The perception of drivers regarding risk-taking behaviour is widely varied. High-risk drivers are the segment of drivers who are disproportionately represented in the majority of crashes. This study examines the typologies of drivers in risk-taking behaviour, the common high-risk driving errors (speeding, close following, abrupt lane-changing and impaired driving), their safety consequences and the technological (ITS) devices for their detection and correction. Limiting the driving degree of freedom of high-risk drivers is proposed and its benefits on safety as well as traffic operations are quantified using VISSIM microscopic traffic simulation at various proportions of high-risk drivers; namely, 4%, 8% and 12%. Assessment of the safety benefits was carried out by using the technique of simulated vehicle conflicts which was validated against historic crashes, and reduction in travel time was used to quantify the operational benefits. The findings imply that limiting the freedom of high-risk drivers resulted in a reduction of crashes by 12%, 21% and 27% in congested traffic conditions; 9%, 13% and 18% in lightly congested traffic conditions as well as 9%, 10% and 17% in non-congested traffic conditions for high-risk drivers in proportions of 4%, 8% and 12% respectively. Moreover, the surrogate safety measures indicated that there was a reduction in crash severity levels. The operational benefits amounted to savings of nearly 1% in travel time for all the proportions of high-risk drivers considered. The study concluded that limiting the freedom of high-risk drivers has safety and operational benefits; though there could be social, legal and institutional concerns for its practical implementation.     

Effectiveness evaluation of simulative workshops for newly licensed drivers

The current study set to examine the effects of simulator use in driving instruction on newly licensed drivers, comparing the road safety knowledge and reported intended behavior, as well as the actual driving performance of new drivers. Participants consisted of 280 newly licensed driver, of which 140 whose drivers license training included additional simulator-based lessons, and 140 drivers whose training precluded simulator-based lessons. All drivers answered questionnaires pertaining to their intended safe driving behaviors (according to Ajzen's (2000) theory of planned behavior), and to their traffic safety knowledge. Of the initial sample, 40 drivers received actual driving performance evaluation by an expert driving instructor, as well as by in-vehicle data recorders (IVDRs). We assumed that safer drivers report safer driving intentions, demonstrate greater traffic safety knowledge, evaluated as safer drivers by the driving instructor, and display lower and stable driving parameters on the IVDRs. We hypothesized that theoretical driving studies combined with practical training on simulators will elevate the safety level of novices driving. Hierarchical regression analyses on driving intentions indicated that drivers who did not receive simulator-based lessons demonstrated safer driving intentions compared to drivers who received simulator-based lessons. This pattern possibly indicating the drivers who received simulator-based lessons felt more confident in their driving abilities compared to drivers who did not receive simulated training. No significant difference was found in traffic safety knowledge, or in the evaluation of the expert driving instructor. IDVR data comparisons indicated drivers who received simulator-based lessons braked more often and were less prone to headway events, suggesting a more responsive driving style. These findings do not point to any significant advantage or disadvantage of the current simulator-based driving training over other driving training methods.     

On-the-road driving records of licensed race drivers

On-the-road driving records of Sports Car Club of America national competition license holders from three states were compared with the records of other drivers of the same age and sex. In each state the race drivers had a greater number of crashes per driver, and a greater number of speeding violations, other moving violations, and non-moving violations per driver, than the drivers comprising the matched comparison group. The results cast considerable doubt as to the validity of the Master Driver's License concept, which has been given serious consideration by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The results also suggest a need for caution regarding the assumption that advanced driver education crash-avoidance techniques can he translated into reduced crash experience.     

Hyperactive children as young adults: driving abilities, safe driving behavior, and adverse driving outcomes

ADHD has been linked to poorer driving abilities and greater adverse outcomes (crashes, citations) in clinic-referred cases of teens and adults with ADHD. No study, however, has focused systematically on ADHD children followed into adulthood. The present paper does so while measuring driving-related cognitive abilities, driving behavior, and history of adverse driving outcomes. A multi-method, multi-source battery of driving measures was collected at the young adult follow-up on hyperactive (H; N=147; mean age=21.1) and community control children (CC; N=71; mean age=20.5) followed for more than 13 years. More of the H than CC groups had been ticketed for reckless driving, driving without a license, hit-and-run crashes, and had their licenses suspended or revoked. Official driving records found more of the H group having received traffic citations and a greater frequency of license suspensions. The cost of damage in their initial crashes was also significantly greater in the H than CC group. Both self-report and other ratings of actual driving behavior revealed less safe driving practices being used by the H group. Observations by driving instructors during a behind-the-wheel road test indicated significantly more impulsive errors. Performance on a simulator further revealed slower and more variable reaction times, greater errors of impulsiveness (false alarms, poor rule following), more steering variability, and more scrapes and crashes of the simulated vehicle against road boundaries in the H than in the CC group. These findings suggest that children growing up with ADHD may either have fewer driving risks or possibly under-report those risks relative to clinic-referred adults with this disorder. Deficits in simulator performance and safe driving behavior, however, are consistent with clinic-referred adults with ADHD suggesting ongoing risks for such adverse driving outcomes in children growing up with ADHD.     

Addressing the road trauma burden in China: Exploring attitudes,behaviours, risk perceptions and cultural uniqueness

As China continues to motorise rapidly, solutions are needed to reduce the burden of road trauma that is spread inequitably across the community. Little is currently known about how new drivers are trained to deal with on-road challenges, and little is also known about the perceptions, behaviours and attitudes of road users in China. This paper reports on a pilot study conducted in a driver retraining facility in one Chinese city where people who have had their licence suspended for accrual of 12 demerit points in a one year period must attend compulsory retraining in order to regain their licence. A sample of 239 suspended drivers responded to an anonymous questionnaire that sought information about preferred driving speeds and perceptions of safe driving speeds across two speed zones. Responses indicated that speeds higher than the posted limits were commonly reported, and that there was incongruence between preferred and safe speeds, such that a greater proportion of drivers reported preferred speeds that were substantially faster than what were reported as safe speeds. Participants with more driving experience reported significantly fewer crashes than newly licensed drivers (less than 2 years licensed) but no differences were found in offences when compared across groups with different levels of driving experience. Perceptions of risky behaviours were assessed by asking participants to describe what they considered to be the most dangerous on-road behaviours. Speeding and drink driving were the most commonly reported by far, followed by issues such as fatigue, ignoring traffic rules, not obeying traffic rules, phone use while driving, and non-use of seatbelts, which attracted an extremely low response which seems consistent with previously reported low belt wearing rates, unfavourable attitudes towards seatbelt use, and low levels of enforcement. Finally, observations about culturally specific considerations are made from previous research conducted by the authors and others. Specifically, issues of saving face and the importance and pervasiveness of social networks and social influence are discussed with particular regard to how any future countermeasures need to be informed by a thorough understanding of Chinese customs and culture.     

Acceptance of drinking and driving and alcohol-involved driving crashes in California

BackgroundAlcohol-impaired driving accounts for substantial proportion of traffic-related fatalities in the U.S. Risk perceptions for drinking and driving have been associated with various measures of drinking and driving behavior. In an effort to understand how to intervene and to better understand how risk perceptions may be shaped, this study explored whether an objective environmental-level measure (proportion of alcohol-involved driving crashes in one’s residential city) were related to individual-level perceptions and behavior.MethodsUsing data from a 2012 cross-sectional roadside survey of 1147 weekend nighttime drivers in California, individual-level self-reported acceptance of drinking and driving and past-year drinking and driving were merged with traffic crash data using respondent ZIP codes. Population average logistic regression modeling was conducted for the odds of acceptance of drinking and driving and self-reported, past-year drinking and driving.ResultsA non-linear relationship between city-level alcohol-involved traffic crashes and individual-level acceptance of drinking and driving was found. Acceptance of drinking and driving did not mediate the relationship between the proportion of alcohol-involved traffic crashes and self-reported drinking and driving behavior. However, it was directly related to behavior among those most likely to drink outside the home.DiscussionThe present study surveys a particularly relevant population and is one of few drinking and driving studies to evaluate the relationship between an objective environmental-level crash risk measure and individual-level risk perceptions. In communities with both low and high proportions of alcohol-involved traffic crashes there was low acceptance of drinking and driving. This may mean that in communities with low proportions of crashes, citizens have less permissive norms around drinking and driving, whereas in communities with a high proportion of crashes, the incidence of these crashes may serve as an environmental cue which informs drinking and driving perceptions. Perceptual information on traffic safety can be used to identify places where people may be at greater risk for drinking and driving. Community-level traffic fatalities may be a salient cue for tailoring risk communication.     

Driving behaviors and accident risk under lifetime license revocation

This study explored the driving behaviors and crash risk of 768 drivers who were under administrative lifetime driver's license revocation (ALLR). It was found that most of the ALLR offenders (83.2%) were still driving and only a few (16.8%) of them gave up driving completely. Of the offenders still driving, 67.6% experienced encountering a police roadside check, but were not detained or ticketed by the police. Within this group, 50.6% continued driving while encountering a police check, 18.0% of them made an immediate U-turn and 9.5% of them parked and exited their car. As to crash risk, 15.2% of the ALLR offenders had at least one crash experience after the ALLR had been imposed. The results of the logistic regression models showed that the offenders’ crash risk while under the ALLR was significantly correlated with their personal characteristics (personal income), penalty status (incarceration, civil compensation and the time elapsed since license revocation), annual distance driven, and needs for driving (working, commuting and driving kids). Low-income offenders were more inclined to have a crash while driving under the ALLR. Offenders penalized by being incarcerated or by paying a high civil compensation drove more carefully and were less of a crash risk under the ALLR. The results also showed there were no differences in crash risk under the ALLR between hit-and-run offences and drunk driving offences or for offenders with a professional license or an ordinary license. Generally, ALLR offenders drove somewhat more carefully and were less of a crash risk (4.3 crashes per million km driven) than legal licensed drivers (23.1 crashes per million km driven). Moreover, they seemed to drive more carefully than drivers who were under short-term license suspension/revocation which previous studies have found.     

Risky driving related to driver and vehicle characteristics

This investigation was performed to determine relationships between driver and vehicle characteristics and risk taking in everyday driving, as measured by close following in freeway traffic. A total of 12,000 observations were made of headways (time intervals between successive vehicles) in high flow freely moving freeway traffic at two sites, one in Michigan, the other in Toronto, Canada. The headways were measured using a photographic technique which allowed vehicle and occupant characteristics to be recorded, including type of vehicle and sex and seat belt use. For the Michigan observations, the vehicle license number was recorded, from which additional information on the vehicle and owner (usually the driver) was obtained from state files, including the vehicle mass and model year and the owner's age. sex and history of recorded accidents and traffic violations. Shorter headways, corresponding to higher risk, were found for drivers with prior accidents or violations, young drivers, male drivers, drivers with no passengers. and drivers who did not wear a seat belt. Vehicles associated with shorter headways included newer cars and cars of intermediate mass (1600–1900 kg).     

Traffic accidents involving fatigue driving and their extent of casualties

The rapid progress of motorization has increased the number of traffic-related casualties. Although fatigue driving is a major cause of traffic accidents, the public remains not rather aware of its potential harmfulness. Fatigue driving has been termed as a “silent killer.” Thus, a thorough study of traffic accidents and the risk factors associated with fatigue-related casualties is of utmost importance. In this study, we analyze traffic accident data for the period 2006–2010 in Guangdong Province, China. The study data were extracted from the traffic accident database of China's Public Security Department. A logistic regression model is used to assess the effect of driver characteristics, type of vehicles, road conditions, and environmental factors on fatigue-related traffic accident occurrence and severity. On the one hand, male drivers, trucks, driving during midnight to dawn, and morning rush hours are identified as risk factors of fatigue-related crashes but do not necessarily result in severe casualties. Driving at night without street-lights contributes to fatigue-related crashes and severe casualties. On the other hand, while factors such as less experienced drivers, unsafe vehicle status, slippery roads, driving at night with street-lights, and weekends do not have significant effect on fatigue-related crashes, yet accidents associated with these factors are likely to have severe casualties. The empirical results of the present study have important policy implications on the reduction of fatigue-related crashes as well as their severity.