2D C/SiC缺陷的无损检测与评价

采用化学气相渗透法制备了内置异物质缺陷的2D C/SiC复合材料,利用红外热成像、X射线照相和计算机断层扫描（工业CT）三种技术对C/SiC试样进行无损检测。研究了内置缺陷试样的三点弯曲性能。结果表明:X射线照相适用于检测试样中有明显密度差异的缺陷;红外热成像检测适用于检测材料中导热系数较差的孔洞及分层缺陷;工业CT可以检测材料的局部横截面密度差异、孔洞和分层等缺陷的细节特征。2D C/SiC材料在受弯曲载荷时,容易从内置异物质缺陷处开裂,且随该缺陷长度增加,其抗弯强度及临界裂纹扩展能降低。      

Modeling of Environmental Effects on Thermal Detection of Subsurface Damage in Concrete

A significant form of deterioration in concrete is corrosion of embedded reinforcing steel that can cause subsurface delaminations and spalling. Infrared thermography can be used to detect delaminations based on variations in surface temperature that are caused by the disruption of the heat flow through the delaminated area. The surrounding environmental conditions such as sunlight, ambient temperature variation, and wind speed are critical for heat transfer, and as such the technology depends on these environmental conditions. This paper describes a numerical model developed to predict thermal contrasts for subsurface delaminations based on a given set of environmental conditions surrounding the concrete. The finite element method (FEM) was used to perform 3-D nonlinear transient heat-transfer analysis of a large concrete block with embedded Styrofoam targets intended to provide an idealized model of subsurface delaminations. The effectiveness of the modeling was evaluated by comparing the thermal contrasts predicted by the model and those obtained from experimental testing of an actual concrete block of the same dimensions. The correlation and error between the experimental testing and the model results indicated that the model could be an effective tool for the prediction of anticipated thermal contrasts based on given weather conditions.     

C/SiC复合材料的定量红外热波无损检测

在C/SiC复合材料板上钻直径和深度不同的盲孔,模拟材料表面下的孔洞缺陷。利用红外热波检测技术对C/SiC缺陷试样盲孔缺陷的孔径和深度做定量检测,并与X射线照相及CT检测结果相比较。结果表明：红外热波检测适合C/SiC复合材料内部缺陷的检测,可同时定量检测C/SiC复合材料中缺陷的大小和深度,并能弥补X射线照相及CT检测的不足。缺陷直径测量误差随着缺陷孔径的增大而减小,随着缺陷深度的增加而增大;缺陷深度测量误差随着缺陷孔径的增大而减小,但在一定范围内随着缺陷深度的增加而减小。红外热波检测C/SiC复合材料孔洞缺陷存在定量测量的下限。     

复合材料蜂窝板脉冲热像检测和调制热像检测的比较研究

为了探索适合复合材料蜂窝板缺陷检测的红外热像检测法及热像信号处理方法, 对蜂窝板的脉冲热像检测(PT)、调制热像检测(MT)及几种热像信号处理方法的缺陷检测能力进行了比较。在脉冲热像检测中, 用脉冲相位法进行热像序列处理, 并与最佳原始热像进行比较。在调制热像检测中, 提出用离散傅里叶级数法和相关系数法进行热像序列处理, 并与经典的四点法进行比较。研究结果表明, 在蜂窝板脱粘缺陷的检测中, 调制热像法的检测效果好于脉冲热像法。在调制热像法的信号处理中, 离散傅里叶级数法和相关系数法的应用效果均好于四点法。在最佳调制频率下, 以"调制热像-离散傅里叶级数"法进行蜂窝板脱粘缺陷的检测具有最大的缺陷探测能力。     

Independent Component Analysis–Based Feature Extraction Technique for Defect Classification Applied for Pulsed Eddy Current NDE

With the development of nondestructive detection, the emerging testing techniques provide new challenges to signal analysis and interpretation approach applied to the inspection evaluation. Some researchers have developed the methods that focus on feature analysis of detected signals. This article presents a new feature analysis by the Independent Component Analysis (ICA) approach to evaluate the defects tested by the pulsed eddy current (PEC) technique. ICA is a high-order statistics technique used to separate multi-unknown sources, which has been successfully applied to facial image identification and separation of the components of 1D signal. In this article, the ICA approach is utilized to project the response signals of various defects into the independent components (ICs) feature subspace by signal representation model. Dependent on the selected ICs, each defect is represented by different projected coefficients, which are proposed to discriminate and classify the defects that belong to three categories. The improved ICA model is proposed to improve the classification of two similar categories of single defects: metal loss and subsurface defects. The evaluation using the series of experimental data has validated the classification of single defects and the defects with lift-off effect by our ICA approach. The comparison with Principal component analysis (PCA)–based approach further verified the better performance of the ICA-based model.     

Modelling delaminations in postbuckling stiffened composite shear panels

 A method has been developed to predict the effect of delaminations in a postbuckling stiffened structure manufactured from laminated composite materials. The emphasis of the technique, driven by aircraft certification requirements, was towards establishing whether delamination growth would initiate under given loading conditions. A geometric nonlinear finite element analysis was used to calculate the strain energy release rate around the circumference of a circular delamination using the virtual crack closure technique. In order to deal with the complex structural response in a computationally efficient manner, the structure was modelled using plate elements with two layers of plate elements used in the delaminated region. The effect of delamination size on the strength of postbuckling panels was shown to be a complex phenomenon in which trends were difficult to predict. Large delaminations could significantly affect the global and sub-laminate buckling modes and therefore be less critical than smaller delaminations. It was concluded that the method could accurately predict the load and location at which delamination growth would initiate, given suitable critical strain energy release rate data. Received 16 February 2000     

Femtosecond pulsed laser micromachining of glass substrates with application to microfluidic devices

We describe a technique for surface and subsurface micromachining of glass substrates by using tightly focused femtosecond laser pulses at a wavelength of 1660 nm. A salient feature of pulsed laser micromachining is its ability to drill subsurface tunnels into glass substrates. To demonstrate a potential application of this micromachining technique, we fabricate simple microfluidic structures on a glass plate. The use of a cover plate that seals the device by making point-to-point contact with the flat surface of the substrate is necessary to prevent the evaporation of liquids in open channels and chambers. Methods for protecting and sealing the micromachined structures for microfluidic applications are discussed.     

Modelling of the lock-in thermography process through finite element method for estimating the rail squat defects

Squats are a major problem on the world railways. The non-destructive evaluation technique is becoming increasingly attractive in the detection of near surface defects on track. Non-destructive thermal evaluation is one such method of inspection technique that can be used for the detection of near surface defects. Its sub-group of lock-in thermography is under analysis. Lock-in thermography utilizes an infrared camera to detect the thermal waves and then produces a thermal image, which displays the local thermal wave variation in phase or amplitude. There are few studies into the actual experimental representation of complex subsurface defects when concerning lock-in thermography processes. While this may be less of a concern given the purpose of numerical defect characterization to reduce the need for extensive experimental pre-tests, the necessity for (artificial) representations of a defect will inevitably be required for validation. The research outlined in this paper examines the use of 3D finite element modelling (FEM) as a potential flexible tool in simulating the lock-in thermography process for detecting squats in track. In addition, lock-in analysis proved that the correct frequency range had to be selected for the material to detect the defect. As maximum positive and negative phase angles were located at “optimum” frequencies, at certain frequencies lead to minimal phase angle difference to which the defects were not detectable (blind frequency) by using the incorrect testing. The 3D finite element method has advantage for determining the “optimum” thermal excitation frequencies compare with experimental investigation. The experimental results show that 3D FEM models can be used to defect the location and the depth of squats in the railway.     

Non-destructive evaluation of thick glass fiber-reinforced composites by means of optically excited lock-in thermography

Optically excited lock-in thermography (OLT) has been exploited for quantitative assessment of simulated subsurface defects in thick glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite laminates routinely employed for the manufacturing of luxury yachts. The paper investigates the detection limits associated to defects geometry and depth as well as recognition of barely visible impact damage over the external gel-coat finish layer. The obtained results demonstrated the effectiveness of lock-in infrared thermography as a powerful and non-contact full-field measurement technique for the inspection of large GFRP structures. In particular, results showed that, by using a transmission set-up instead than a reflection one, accurate assessment (standard uncertainty < 1.4%) of impact damages could be attained, whereas estimation of delaminations depth is critically influenced by the actual area and aspect ratio of the discontinuity. A simple model to account for this dependency has been proposed.     

A review of factors influencing defect detection in infrared thermography: Applications to coated materials

Infrared thermography is a technique that is used to nondestructively inspect parts for the presence of subsurface defects. The technique normally consists of applying heat to one surface of the part and observing the thermal response, using heat-sensing devices such as infrared cameras, as the part cools. Internal defects such as voids modify the thermal response and produce local hot or cold spots on the specimen surface. For the detection of subsurface defects, the sensitivity of the technique to different parameters such as defect depth, material properties, and heating methods has not been established due in part to the complex nature of the heat/flaw interaction. A finite element model is used here to examine the influence of these parameters on defect dectability. The model shows that the defect detectability decreases with increasing defect depth beneath the surface, and that the technique is most sensitive to the inspection of low thermal diffusivity coatings bonded to high thermal diffusivity substrates. The results also show that the heat pulse duration should be made as short as possible to maximize defect detectability.     

Numerical and experimental investigation of free vibration of multilayer delaminated composite beams and plates

The use of vibration-monitoring techniques as non-destructive methods for detection of delaminations in layered composite beam and plate structures is a current field of interest for many researchers. However, an extensive search of published literature shows that information on numerical and especially experimental investigations into the dynamic behaviour of delaminated layered composite beams and plates is limited. For this reason the present authors have developed theoretical models and carried out an extensive experimental investigation to establish changes in the first three bending natural frequencies due to delaminations. The subsequent results of these numerical calculations are consistent with the results of the corresponding experimental investigations. As the result of this work models of a finite delaminated beam element and delaminated plate element have been developed. The method of modelling delaminations presented in this work enables its easy modification according to specific cases of damage (i.e. multiple delaminations). Received 12 December 99     

Fast and High-Resolution Optical Inspection System for In-Line Detection and Labeling of Surface Defects

Automated optical inspection systems installed in production lines help ensure high throughput by speeding up inspection of defects that are otherwise difficult to detect using the naked eye. However, depending on the size and surface properties of the products such as micro-cracks on touchscreen panels glass cover, the detection speed and accuracy are limited by the imaging module and lighting technique. Therefore the current inspection methods are still delegated to a few qualified personnel whose limited capacity has been a huge tradeoff for high volume production. In this study, an automated optical technology for in-line surface defect inspection is developed offering high performance in spatial resolution and detection speed for any surface. The inspection system consisting of an LED array which illuminates a wide inspection area on the test object captures scattered light from surface defects using a 12288-pixel line CCD at 12 kHz acquisition rate. A 3.5 \(\mu\) m per pixel resolution of the line CCD provides a detection width capability of at most 43 mm which is equivalent to 147 megapixels image data acquired per second. To handle the large volume of data per acquisition cycle, the data are transmitted from a host CPU to multiple GPU devices where CUDA-based image processing kernels are adopted to perform detection and labeling of surface defects in parallel. The processed data is sent back to the CPU to display user-defined defect maps. 2-D inspection of back-coated flat mirrors, 43 mm x 70 mm\(^{2}\) in size, using a single CCD module and multiple GPU reveals that surface flaws such as bubbles, cracks, and edge defects are detected accurately. The acquisition time to capture and load the data to a CPU is 1.7 s while the processing time to transmit the same data for surface defect detection in a GPU is 248 ms. The latter time scale is considerably faster compared to minute-long computations in solely CPU-based processing algorithm of the same test object. The minimum width of detected surface defects is about 10 \(\mu \)m with true detection rates above 94%. Moreover, the inspection system is easily configurable by tasking multiple CCD imaging modules to different GPU devices to allow inspection of larger test objects. This flexibility can improve both acquisition and detection speeds to boost in-line circuit chips, packaging, and touchscreen panel inspection systems.     

Simultaneous real-time imaging of surface and subsurface structures from a single space-frequency multiplexed photodisplacement interferogram

A new parallel photodisplacement technique has been developed that achieves simultaneous real-time imaging of surface and subsurface structures from a single space-frequency multiplexed interferogram, which greatly simplifies the system and the optical alignment. A linear region of photodisplacement is excited on the sample for subsurface imaging by use of a line-focused intensity-modulated laser beam, and the displacement and surface information on reflectivity and topography are detected by a parallel heterodyne interferometer with a charge-coupled device linear image sensor used as a detector. The frequencies of three control signals for excitation and detection, that is, the heterodyne beat signal, modulation signal, and sensor gate pulse, are optimized such that surface and subsurface information components are space-frequency multiplexed into the sensor signal as orthogonal functions, allowing each to be discretely reproduced from Fourier coefficients. Preliminary experiments demonstrate that this technique is capable of simultaneous imaging of reflectivity, topography, and photodisplacement for the detection of subsurface lattice defects at a remarkable speed of only 0.26 s per 256 x 256 pixel area. This new technique is promising for use in nondestructive hybrid surface and subsurface inspection and other applications.     

Detection and Characterization of Local Defect Resonances Arising from Delaminations and Flat Bottom Holes

The concept of local defect resonance (LDR) can be used to diagnose the presence of defects, such as delaminations and cracks, and enable their localisation. This paper describes an automated detection methodology of LDR frequencies using signals measured by laser Doppler vibrometry. The performance of the detection algorithm is validated, both numerically and experimentally, on an aluminum sample containing a flat bottom hole. Subsequently, the algorithm has been applied on a sample made of glass-fiber-reinforced polymer that contains a single circular delamination and a composite sandwich structure with a disbond. In all cases, the lowest order LDR frequencies were successfully identified.     

水利工程中金属焊缝缺陷的超声检测方法比较研究

为研究基于超声的无损探伤方法在水利工程金属结构焊缝缺陷识别中的应用,利用常规超声检测技术、超声相控阵技术、衍射时差法(Time of Flight Diffraction, TOFD)超声检测技术对水利工程金属结构焊接试块缺陷进行识别,分析了各种缺陷在超声无损探伤技术中的特征显示。研究结果表明:常规超声检测技术、TOFD检测技术均能对各种缺陷实现信号显示,超声相控阵检测技术对气孔和横向裂纹的显示不够明显,但对其它缺陷的检出效果较为明显;常规超声检测技术对操作人员的要求较高,对缺陷的定性困难,精度不高;TOFD检测结果中气孔和横向裂纹的显示呈现出一种特殊的弧形,有一定高度的内部裂纹和未熔合的信号由上下尖端衍射波组成,根部未焊透上下尖端信号不够明显;相控阵检测结果直观,可以较精确地测量缺陷的埋藏深度、自身高度、长度等,但在扫查点状缺陷或者与超声声束平行的裂纹缺陷时,检出率极低。     

Detectability of Subsurface Defects with Different Width-to-Depth Ratios in Concrete Structures Using Pulsed Thermography

The active thermography technique is one of the most effective nondestructive tests for evaluating subsurface delaminations in concrete structures. The limitation of this method, which has been studied for some time, is that the width of the smallest detectable defect should be at least two times larger than its depth. However, controversy on this matter remains for concrete material with largely uncertain homogeneity, although the development of the infrared (IR) detector technology improved the above-mentioned limitation. In this study, the pulsed thermography (PT) technique is therefore conducted in the laboratory to investigate the detectability of delaminations with the width-to-depth ratio (w2d) ranging from 1.0 to 7.9 by using a long IR wavelength detector with a focal plane array of 640 \(\times \) 480 pixels. The study focuses on the w2d ratio lower than 2.0. A concrete specimen was made with 12 embedded simulated delaminations having different sizes and depths. The results showed that a combination of PT and pulsed phase thermography can be used to detect delaminations with a w2d ratio equal or greater than 1.25. In addition, the absolute contrast above the delamination increases with the higher w2d ratio, indicating that even for a relatively deep delamination, it is still detectable if a delamination is provided by appropriate heat energy and its size is sufficiently large. Finally, the study also indicates that as the amount of heating energy provided is increased, the greater accuracy in predicting the depth can be obtained.     

表面裂纹的激光超声可视化兰姆波检测研究

兰姆波在板材的缺陷检测中具有重要的地位,但兰姆波在裂纹检测过程的可视化实验研究较少。通过激光超声可视化技术,观察了激光激励出的宽频兰姆波在0.4 mm深、0.2 mm宽的裂纹上的反射和透射现象;并利用带通滤波技术,研究了不同中心频率的兰姆波在裂纹上的散射特性。结果发现:兰姆波在裂纹上发生了模态转换现象,出现了传播速度较快的兰姆波模态;并随着兰姆波频率的增加,反射兰姆波的能量增强。该研究为板中裂纹的兰姆波检测提供了实验参考。     

Real-time photodisplacement microscope for high-sensitivity simultaneous surface and subsurface inspection

We have developed a new photodisplacement microscope system for practical use that achieves high-sensitivity simultaneous real-time imaging of surface and subsurface structures from a single space-frequency multiplexed interferogram. In this system a linear region of photothermal displacement is excited on the sample surface for subsurface imaging by a line-focused intensity-modulated laser beam. Surface information such as reflectivity and topography along with the displacement is detected with a charge-coupled device sensor-based parallel heterodyne interferometer. Surface and subsurface information components are space-frequency multiplexed into the sensor signal as orthogonal functions based on a frequency-optimized undersampling scheme, allowing each to be discretely reproduced by using a real-time Fourier analysis technique. Preliminary experiments demonstrate that this system is effective, simultaneously imaging reflectivity, topography, and photodisplacement for the detection of subsurface lattice defects in silicon, at a remarkable speed of only 0.26 s/256x256 pixel area. This new microscope is promising for nondestructive hybrid surface and subsurface inspection and other applications.     

Defect detection in CFRP structures using pulsed thermographic data enhanced by penalized least squares methods

Pulsed thermography (PT) is a widely used non-destructive testing (NDT) method for detecting defective regions in carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) structures. In order to improve the spatial and temporal resolution of thermographic data, thermographic signal reconstruction (TSR) is often adopted for data processing and analysis. However, TSR only performs data filtering along the time direction, while the spatial information is not exploited for noise reduction. In addition, TSR cannot handle the non-uniform backgrounds commonly existing in thermal images. To get around these problems, this paper extends the utilization of the penalized least squares methods to defect detection in CFRP structures. The experiment results show that, with the aid of penalized least squares, the defective regions in thermal images are characterized more clearly, while the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) values are increased significantly.     

Infrared thermography for void mapping of a graphene/epoxy composite and its full‐field thermal simulation

Important challenges are faced during the manufacturing of graphene nanoplatelet (GNP)/polymer composites, associated with material quality and how to eliminate or reduce fabrication‐induced defects in the effort to improve performance. In the present work, infrared thermography (IRT) is used to measure void content and map void distribution, formed during fabrication of GNP/epoxy nanocomposites. Taking into consideration the size of each pixel (~100 μm), this method enables the non‐destructive detection of flaws with a size of approximately 200 μm. Their effect on thermal conductivity of the nanocomposite is studied by a 3D multiscale finite element analysis. Generic and full‐field comparisons demonstrate a good agreement between measurements and numerical predictions, validating assumptions and simplifications made in the proposed model.