Optimizing Structures with Semi-Rigid Connections Using the Principle of Virtual Work

In this paper, the virtual work optimization method (VWOM) has been generalised to consider structures with semi-rigid connections. The VWOM is an automated method that minimizes the mass of a structure with a given geometry, multiple deflection criteria and load cases, while adhering to Design code requirements. In the optimization process, members are selected from a discrete database to meet all strength and stiffness criteria. Connections are modelled using rotational springs, allowing some moment transfer. The rotational stiffness of each connection can be varied form rigid to pinned. The example of a pitched roof frame is used to explain the method. Two case studies are considered: (i) a three-storey two-bay and (ii) a four-storey three-bay office building. The VWOM produced results up to 26.7% lighter than results in the literature. Furthermore, the structures were optimized for a range of rotational stiffness, where all connections in the structure were assumed to have the same rotational stiffness. Characteristic jumps in the optimized mass versus rotational stiffness were observed.     

General notes on ductility in timber structures

The paper discusses the implications of ductility in design of timber structures under static and dynamic loading including earthquakes. Timber is a material inherently brittle in bending and in tension, unless reinforced adequately. However connections between timber members can exhibit significant ductility, if designed and detailed properly to avoid splitting. Hence it is possible to construct statically indeterminate systems made of brittle timber members connected with ductile connections that behave in a ductile fashion. The brittle members, however, must be designed for the overstrength related to the strength of the ductile connections to ensure the ductile failure mechanism will take place before the failure of the brittle members. The overstrength ratio, defined as the ratio between the 95th percentile of the connection strength distribution and the analytical prediction of the characteristic connection strength, was calculated for multiple doweled connections loaded parallel to the grain based on the results of an extensive experimental programme carried out on timber splice connections with 10.65 and 11.75 mm diameter steel dowels grade 4.6. In this particular case the overstrength ratio was found to range from 1.2 to 2.1, and a value of 1.6 is recommended for ductile design. The paper illustrates the use of the elastic-perfectly plastic analysis with ductility control for a simple statically indeterminate structure and compares this approach to the fully non-linear analysis and with the more traditional linear elastic analysis. It is highlighted that plastic design should not be used for timber bridges since fatigue may lead to significant damage accumulation in the connections if plastic deformations have developed. The paper also shows that the current relative definitions of ductility, as a ratio between an ultimate deformation/displacement and the corresponding yield quantity, should be replaced by absolute definitions of ductility, for example the ultimate deformation/displacement, as the latter ones better represent the ductile structural behavior.     

门式刚架结构节点初始刚度有限元分析

针对工程中应用广泛的门式刚架轻型房屋钢结构,给出节点初始刚度的计算公式,运用ANSYS分析了端板连接处的刚度,对影响其刚度的几种要素进行分类讨论,并讨论节点刚度对结构整体弯矩分布的影响。     

Seismic performance of the Accordion-Web RBS connection

A new type of Reduced Beam Section (RBS) connection, “Accordion Web RBS (AW-RBS)”, is presented in this research. RBS connections are commonly known as connections with reduced flange width within a limited area near the column face. However, the AW-RBS decreases the web contribution in moment strength and a reduced section is developed in the beam. In an AW-RBS, the flat web is replaced by corrugated plates (L-shape folded plates, used here) at the expected location of the beam’s plastic hinge. While the corrugated web has adequate shear strength, its provided moment strength and flexural stiffness are negligible. Two relatively identical specimens including AW-RBS connections have been tested under cyclic loading. Both specimens provide at least 8% story drift, without any significant strength loss, which is more than current requirements for qualifying connections in special moment frames. The accordion effect of the corrugated web and the cyclic performance of the connection are verified by analytical results. According to the analytical and experimental results, the inelastic rotations of the connection are mostly provided by reliable and ductile rotation at the reduced region rather than in the connection plates or panel zone.     

胶合木梁-柱摩擦型节点滞回性能研究

将摩擦型连接和形状记忆合金（SMA）板引入重型胶合木结构,提出了胶合木梁-柱摩擦型节点并研究了其滞回性能。分别以钢材和木材作为摩擦板材料,设计并制作了3个1∶2缩尺节点,开展了水平低周反复加载试验,获取了节点的典型破损模式和弯矩-转角滞回曲线,对比了节点的弹性转动刚度、峰值弯矩、耗能能力和残余变形。基于胶合木梁-柱摩擦型节点的工作机理建立了节点弯矩-转角滞回模型。结果表明：摩擦型节点主要发生SMA板受拉断裂,节点连接区域木材基本保持完好。相比普通螺栓钢填板节点,摩擦型节点的弹性转动刚度基本保持不变,峰值弯矩下降2%~17%,但各级位移加载幅值下节点耗能增加64%~278%,等效黏滞阻尼系数基本大于0.2,残余变形减小。采用钢制摩擦板的摩擦型节点残余变形更小,采用木质摩擦板的摩擦型节点的等效黏滞阻尼系数较大。胶合木梁-柱摩擦型节点的弯矩-转角滞回模型与试验滞回曲线吻合良好,表明其可用于工程结构分析。     

Hysteretic performance of frictional glulam beam-to-column connections

将摩擦型连接和形状记忆合金（SMA）板引入重型胶合木结构，提出了胶合木梁-柱摩擦型节点并研究了其滞回性能。分别以钢材和木材作为摩擦板材料，设计并制作了3个1∶2缩尺节点，开展了水平低周反复加载试验，获取了节点的典型破损模式和弯矩-转角滞回曲线，对比了节点的弹性转动刚度、峰值弯矩、耗能能力和残余变形。基于胶合木梁-柱摩擦型节点的工作机理建立了节点弯矩-转角滞回模型。结果表明：摩擦型节点主要发生SMA板受拉断裂，节点连接区域木材基本保持完好。相比普通螺栓钢填板节点，摩擦型节点的弹性转动刚度基本保持不变，峰值弯矩下降2%~17%，但各级位移加载幅值下节点耗能增加64%~278%，等效黏滞阻尼系数基本大于0.2，残余变形减小。采用钢制摩擦板的摩擦型节点残余变形更小，采用木质摩擦板的摩擦型节点的等效黏滞阻尼系数较大。胶合木梁-柱摩擦型节点的弯矩-转角滞回模型与试验滞回曲线吻合良好，表明其可用于工程结构分析。     

Behaviour of flush end plate joints to concrete-filled steel tubular columns

This paper presents the results of an experimental program for bolted moment connection joints of circular or square concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) columns, and H-shaped steel beams using high-strength blind bolts. In order to investigate the static performance and failure modes of the blind bolted connection, an experimental program was conducted involving four sub-assemblages of cruciform beam-to-column joints subjected to monotonic loading. Moment-rotation relationships of the tested connections were obtained and their performance was evaluated in terms of their stiffness, moment capacities and ductility. The test parameters varied were the column section type and the thickness of the end plate. The results showed that the proposed blind bolted connection, which behaves in a semi-rigid and partial strength manner according to the EC3 specification, displays reasonable strength and stiffness. The rotation capacity of this type of connection to square or circular CFST columns exceeds 70 mrad and this satisfies the ductility requirements for earthquake-resistance in most aseismic regions. The blind bolted connection is shown to be a reliable and effective solution for moment-resisting composite frame structures.     

#br# 胶合木梁柱螺栓节点变异性分析

胶合木梁柱螺栓节点通常会受到木材材性和制造公差的影响，而表现出显著的变异性。为揭示节点变异性的关键影响因素并建立节点初始刚度和抗弯承载力预测模型，开展了节点变异性分析。采用已有试验结果验证确定性有限元模型的精度。考虑木材材性和螺孔间隙的随机分布规律，采用有限元方法计算胶合木梁柱螺栓连接节点初始刚度和抗弯承载力。根据统计方差分析结果确定节点初始刚度和抗弯承载力的关键影响因素。通过多项式回归拟合方法建立节点初始刚度和抗弯承载力的响应面方程。方差分析结果表明，销轴承压区顺纹和横纹方向弹性模量对于节点初始刚度的方差具有显著的影响，而螺孔间隙对于节点初始刚度也具有一定的影响；木材横纹抗拉强度和顺纹抗剪强度对于节点抗弯承载力的方差具有显著的影响，而螺孔间隙也会在一定程度上影响节点的抗弯承载力。针对随机生成的样本的计算结果表明，响应面方程能够准确预测节点的初始刚度和抗弯承载力。     

组合效应对钢节点抗震性能的影响因素分析

钢—混凝土组合梁当前在钢框架结构中已经得到了广泛的应用,但是地震荷载作用下组合节点的设计方法却一直在完善和发展.基于组合节点的数值分析,着重研究钢框架梁柱节点的抗震性能,进行了有限元分析、模型参数分析,研究了不同变量条件下节点抗震性能与梁强度的平衡关系,并针对混凝土板中的配筋率、混凝土板板厚、钢节点类型等因素进行了分析和讨论.分析结果表明,在进行钢框架梁柱节点的抗震设计时,应该考虑混凝土板的组合效应.     

Ductility aspects of reinforced and non-reinforced timber joints

Even though brittle failure modes in timber joints may be avoided by the proper design of the connection, the use of minimum timber dimensions and minimum spacing and distances of fasteners often leads to timber splitting in the connection area. Due to the highly nonlinear behaviour of timber loaded in compression as well as the steel used for mechanical fasteners, timber joints can behave in a rather ductile manner. Ductile behaviour is preferable in timber structures.Technical innovations regarding engineered wood products as well as fastener and steel technology led to the development of high-performance timber connections. In these high-performance connections, brittle failure modes are prevented by reinforcing the timber in the connection area perpendicular to the grain or using cross-laminated timber members. The improvement of the ductility levels is shown based on several experimental studies comparing non-reinforced to reinforced connections.     

Plastic design of pallet rack beams

Pallet racking structures constructed using thin cold roll formed steel sections and boldess semi-rigid connections are commonly used to equip large warehouses. The design of such structures is critically influenced by the structural characteristics of the beam to column connection, including its stiffness and strength. Its ductility, or rotational capability up to failure, is not normally a design consideration. This paper proposes a method of defining ductility requirements of such connections.     

高层建筑钢结构梁柱节点试验研究

1994年美国Northridge地震和 1995年日本阪神地震后 ,许多新型梁柱节点被提出 ,其中狗骨式节点是研究最多的一种节点形式。现结合实际工程对这种节点进行了试验研究 ,探讨了其在模拟地震荷载作用下的性能。试验结果表明 ,通过对节点附近梁上下翼缘进行合理的削弱可以增加节点的延性 ,同时对节点的刚度、强度影响很小 ,很好地改善了节点性能。在试验研究和数值计算的基础上提出了一种狗骨式节点设计方法     

Bolted moment connections in drive-in and drive-through steel storage racks

The stability of steel storage racks, which are often unbraced, may depend solely on the pallet beam to upright connector and on the stiffness of the base plate to floor connection. This paper presents experimental results from cyclic tests performed on portal beam to upright bolted moment connections intended for cold-formed steel drive-in and drive-through storage racks. In storage racks, portal beams are typically connected to uprights by “tab connectors”, which are costly to manufacture and experience initial looseness. By simply bolting the portal beams to the uprights, bolted moment connections may represent a cost-effective alternative to “tab connectors”. A literature review shows that bolted moment connections between cold-formed steel members are economical and feasible. However, experimental results show a significant amount of looseness in the connection after an initial high moment-rotational stiffness. Being slender structures, storage racks are sensitive to the second-order P-Δ effect, and international racking specifications require the initial looseness of the tab connectors to be considered when analysing the stability of the rack in the down-aisle direction (sway motion). The non-linear cyclic behaviour of bolted moment connections is presented and explained herein. Based on finite element results, it is shown that, for drive-in and drive-through racks, the looseness in bolted moment connections can be ignored in ultimate limit states design. Finally, the paper concludes with proposing two methods, with different degree of complexity, for the design of drive-in and drive-through racks with bolted portal beam to upright bolted moment connections.     

Effects of connection deformation softening on behavior of steel moment frames subjected to earthquakes

In the years since the 1994 Northridge earthquake, the profession has paid significant attention to the potential effects of various forms of deterioration in connection strength and stiffness that steel moment-resisting frames can experience during severe seismic excitations. The brittle connection fractures that a number of welded steel moment-resisting frame structures experienced during recent earthquakes have been the most extensively studied to date. However, cyclic testing of post-Northridge beam-column connections demonstrates that ductile connections may suffer other forms of deterioration. Negative post-yield tangent stiffness or capping, hereafter referred to as deformation softening, is a behavior of particular interest because it may have significant adverse effects on frame system behavior. The effects of deformation softening on frames subjected to pulse excitations were examined as part of an integrated experimental and analytical investigation of the effect of various forms of hysteretic deterioration on the overall system behavior of moment resisting steel frames. Pulse excitations, and the near-field ground motions they represent, can be highly damaging to structures and are therefore the primary focus of the results presented in this paper. The experimental portion of this study consisted of a series of thirty-two shaking table tests, which were performed on a one-third scale, two-story, one bay, steel moment frame with idealized, mechanical connections. These tests and subsequent analytical studies show that, in general, significant loss of connection strength capacity, whether from deformation softening or other types of deterioration, leads to large residual drifts and, for large pulse excitations with durations longer than the fundamental period of the structure, to collapse. In particular, frames with connections exhibiting negative post-yield stiffness tend to have substantially increased peak and residual displacements when subjected to pulse excitations.     

胶合木梁柱角钢混合连接静力与抗震性能试验研究

为解决传统的木结构销栓连接刚度低、震后可恢复功能弱等问题,将钢结构梁柱翼缘角钢连接方法应用于木结构,提出了一种胶合木梁柱角钢混合连接形式。为研究此类木结构节点的静力与抗震性能,对节点试件进行了单调与低周反复荷载试验。研究结果表明：当梁柱截面尺寸分别为135mm×420mm和150mm×350mm,连接角钢规格为∟180×110×12时,胶合木梁柱角钢混合连接的极限弯矩达到95.3kN·m,最大转角接近0.096rad,初始刚度达4073kN·m/rad。低周反复荷载作用下,混合连接的变形能力与延性良好,梁端弯矩-转角滞回曲线呈反“S”形,角钢屈服后的大变形使其短肢底部与柱面产生了明显的分离,滞回曲线出现捏缩效应;角钢的短肢翘曲严重,从而使混合连接的耗能能力和等效黏滞阻尼系数均下降。     

重型木结构梁柱植筋节点的抗弯承载力研究

植筋节点是胶合木等重型木结构中的新型连接方式。首先建立了木结构植筋节点的力学计算模型,分析了其破坏形态和破坏机理;基于力学模型分析及结构计算理论并提出了粘结应力和梁柱节点的抗弯承载力计算公式,为工程设计和应用提供有益参考。     

Post tensioned tendons for seismic retrofitting of weak bolted T-stub connections

Current design philosophy for conventional steel moment resisting frames (MRFs) in high seismic regions is that the frames should not collapse for major earthquakes. However, significant structural damage and residual drift due to inelastic deformations in beams and columns may cause loss of building occupancy or operation after major earthquakes. On the other hand, Selecting the optimum technique for rehabilitation of existing structures with weak connections has been a challenge for engineers in the recent years. In this study, the authors proposed using post-tensioned tendons for rehabilitation of bolted Tstub connections with weak bolts or weak T-stub flange as well as a technique for changing pinned connections to moment connections. Six corner connection specimens are made and tested under SAC cyclic loading protocol. The results of this study show that this rehabilitation technique not only modifies the cyclic behavior of weak rigid connections and changes simple bolted connections into moment connections, but also it improves the behavior of the rehabilitated connections in a way that their behavior is more desirable than that of the reference rigid connection designed according to AISC. For example, flexural capacity and rotational stiffness of the retrofitted connections are higher than those of the reference connection by 18 and 26% in average respectively. Besides, rehabilitation using post tensioned tendons add self-centering ability to the retrofitted connection that has a major role in preventing permanent deformations in frame and thus, the possibility of using frictional dampers in self-centering frames for increasing the energy absorption capacity is provided. This rehabilitation technique in bolted connection with weak T-stub flange has better cyclic behavior compared to that of a connection with weak bolts, since the T-stub participates in energy absorption and higher energy absorption is reached.     

地下工程连通接驳等效刚度加固机理及方法

地下工程拓建连通接驳时,通常侧重既有结构开洞与加固的强度校核,对结构刚度在内力重分配中的作用重视不够,加固环梁初始断面的确定亦缺乏依据。基于超静定结构的力学特性,提出拓建结构连通接驳的等效刚度加固机理及方法。得出如下结论:(1)超静定结构对变形的敏感性强,连通接驳设计及施工应降低开洞变形对既有结构内力的影响;(2)连通接驳等效刚度的目的是实现加固环梁与拆除结构刚度的等效性;(3)等效刚度法为加固环梁初始断面的确定提供计算方法,为结构强度校核提供依据;(4)建议连通接驳采用“先加固、后开洞”的措施,实现开洞过程中,加固环梁承担主要的应力分配,保护既有结构的安全。     

Evaluation of Three Support Shapes on Behavior of New Bolted Connection BBCC in Modularized Prefabricated Steel Structures

Bolted connections are suitable due to high quality prefabrication in the factory and erection in the workplace. Prefabrication and modularization cause high speed of erection and fabrication, high quality and quick return of investment. Their technical hitches transportation can be removed by prefabrication of joints and small fabrication of components. Box-columns are suitable members for bolted structures such as welded steel structures with moment frames in two directions etc., but their continual fabrication in multi-story buildings and performing the internal continuity plate in them will cause some practical dilemmas. The details of the proposal technique introduced here, is to remove such problems from the box columns. Besides, some other advantages include new prefabricated bolted beam-to-column connections referred to BBCC. This connection is a set of plates joined to columns, beams, support, and bolts. For a better understanding of its fabrication and erection techniques, two connection and one structural maquettes are made. The present work aims to study the cyclic behavior of connection numerically. To verify the accuracy of model, a similar tested connection was modelled. Its verification was then made through comparison with test results. The behavior of connection was evaluated for an exterior connection using three different support shapes. The effects of support shapes on rigidity, ductility, rotation capacity, maximum strength, four rad rotation strength were compared to those of the AISC seismic provision requirements. It was found that single beams support has all the AISC seismic provision requirements for special moment frames with and without a continuity plate, and box with continuity plate is the best support in the BBCC connection.     

内嵌多块钢板销式连接木结构节点承载力的计算与设计方法

随着技术的发展,现代木结构开始向大跨、多层方向发展,在荷载作用下连接节点处往往会产生较大的内力,而内嵌多块钢板销式连接节点具有较高的承载力且破坏具有较好的延性,越来越广泛地应用于现代木结构设计中.介绍了内嵌3块钢板销式连接节点的破坏模式,根据Johansen屈服理论推导了各种破坏模式下其承载力计算公式,并简要地介绍了实...