Effects of forced electromagnetic vibrations during the solidification of aluminum alloys: Part I. solidification in the presence of crossed alternating electric fields and stationary magnetic fields

A new magnetohydrodynamic method of transmitting forced vibrations to solidifying aluminum alloy melts has been developed. Contrary to the case of the conventional mechanoacoustic systems, this device lends itself very well to a fundamental investigation. The relatively accurate knowledge of both the electromagnetic pressure and the local velocity peaks has enabled us to reveal the specific effects of the oscillatory flow and of the cavitation phenomena on grain refinement. It has been shown that the cavitation threshold depends both on the surface state of the crucible internal walls and on the electromagnetic pressure peak. In the presence of well-developed cavitation situations, a very fine and homogeneous microstructure has been observed throughout the ingot. A laboratory prototype of a new magnetohydrodynamic cavity resonator, allowing for significant energy saving and likely to be used for industrial applications, including the elaboration of metal matrix composites by means of a preform infiltration process, was also the subject of experimentation.     

Heat transport and solidification in the electromagnetic casting of aluminum alloys: Part II. Development of a mathematical model and comparison with experimental results

In this second article of a two-part series, a mathematical model for heat transport and solidification of aluminum in electromagnetic casting is developed. The model is a three-dimensional one but involves a simplified treatment of convective heat transport in the liquid metal pool. Heat conduction in the solid was thought to play a dominant role in heat transport, and the thermal properties of the two alloys used in measurements reported in Part I (AA 5182 and 3104) were measured independently for input to the model. Heat transfer into the water sprays impacting the sides of the ingot was approximated using a heat-transfer coefficient from direct chill casting; because this heat-transfer step appears not to be rate determining for solidification and cooling of most of the ingot, there is little inaccuracy involved in this approximation. Joule heating was incorporated into some of the computations, which were carried out using the finite element software FIDAP. There was good agreement between the computed results and extensive thermocouple measurements (reported in Part I) made on a pilot-scale caster at Reynolds Metals Company (Richmond, VA).     

Thermosolutal convection during dendritic solidification of alloys: Part II. Nonlinear convection

A mathematical model of thermosolutal convection in directionally solidified dendritic alloys has been developed that includes a mushy zone underlying an all-liquid region. The model assumes a nonconvective initial state with planar and horizontal isotherms and isoconcentrates that move upward at a constant solidification velocity. The initial state is perturbed, nonlinear calculations are performed to model convection of the liquid when the system is unstable, and the results are compared with the predictions of a linear stability analysis. The mushy zone is modeled as a porous medium of variable porosity consistent with the volume fraction of, interdendritic liquid that satisfies the conservation equations for energy and solute concentrations. Results are presented for systems involving lead-tin alloys (Pb-10 wt pct Sn and Pb-20 wt pct Sn) and show significant differences with results of plane-front solidification. The calculations show that convection in the mushy zone is mainly driven by convection in the all-liquid region, and convection of the interdendritic liquid is only significant in the upper 20 pct of the mushy zone if it is significant at all. The calculated results also show that the systems are stable at reduced gravity levels of the order of 10⁻⁴ g ₀ (g ₀=980 cm·s⁻¹) or when the lateral dimensions of the container are small enough, for stable temperature gradients between 2.5≤G _l≤100 K·cm⁻¹ at solidification velocities of 2 to 8 cm·h⁻¹.     

Heat transport and solidification in the electromagnetic casting of aluminum alloys: Part I. Experimental measurements on a pilot-scale caster

While many investigators have examined electromagnetic and magnetohydrodynamics phenomena in electromagnetic casting (EMC) of aluminum, there appears to be no published work on heat transport and solidification in such casters. This two-part series is an attempt to remedy this deficiency. The first part describes two experimental campaigns, carried out on a pilot-scale electromagnetic caster at Reynolds Metals Company, in which sacrificial thermocouples were used to obtain many data on temperature distributions within the aluminum of a pilot-scale caster and thereby to obtain the shape of the liquid metal pool (“sump”). The data reveal a strong dependence of temperature distribution and sump depth on casting speed but a relatively weak dependence on the flow rate of the quenching water striking the outside of the ingot.     

Growth of the solid-liquid region during one-dimensional solidification of binary alloys. Part II

The solidification behavior of finite slabs of Fe-Si, Fe-P, and Fe-S alloys is calculated assuming: negligible diffusion in solid; complete diffusion in the liquid; equal solid and liquid densities; and constant temperature at the cooling surface. The effects of alloy parameters,e.g., solute distribution ratio, eutectic temperature and composition, and the initial concentration of solute in the molten alloys on the growth of the solid-liquid region (mushy zone) are explored. It is found that the thickness of the mushy zone relative to the solidified shell becomes greater with decreasing solute distribution ratio.     

Contraction of aluminum alloys during and after solidification

A technique for measuring the linear contraction during and after solidification of aluminum alloys was improved and used for examination of binary and commercial alloys. The effect of experimental parameters, e.g., the length of the mold and the melt level, on the contraction was studied. The correlation between the compositional dependences of the linear contraction in the solidification range and the hot tearing susceptibility was shown for binary Al-Cu and Al-Mg alloys and used for the estimation of hot tearing susceptibility of 6XXX series alloys with copper. The linear thermal contraction coefficients for binary and commercial alloys showed complex behavior at subsolidus temperatures. The technique allows estimation of the contraction coefficient of commercial alloys in a wide range of temperatures and could be helpful for computer simulations of geometrical distortions during directchill (DC) casting.     

Thermosolutal convection during dendritic solidification of alloys: Part i. Linear stability analysis

This paper describes the simulation of thermosolutal convection in directionally solidified (DS) alloys. A linear stability analysis is used to predict marginal stability curves for a system that comprises a mushy zone underlying an all-liquid zone. In the unperturbed and nonconvecting state .e.}, the basic state), isotherms and isoconcentrates are planar and horizontal. The mushy zone is realistically treated as a medium with a variable volume fraction of liquid that is con-sistent with the energy and solute conservation equations. The perturbed variables include tem-perature, concentration of solute, and both components of velocity in a two-dimensional system. As a model system, an alloy of Pb-20 wt pct Sn, solidifying at a velocity of 2 X 10^-3 cm s^-1 was selected. Dimensional numerical calculations were done to define the marginal stability curves in terms of the thermal gradient at the dendrite tips,G _L ,vs the horizontal wave number of the perturbed quantities. For a gravitational constant of 1g,0.5 g, 0.1g, and 0.01g, the marginal stability curves show no minima; thus, the system is never unconditionally stable. Nevertheless, such calculations quantify the effect of reducing the gravitational constant on reducing convection and suggest lateral dimensions of the mold for the purpose of suppressing convection. Finally, for a gravitational constant of 10^-4 g, calculations show that the system is stable for the thermal gradients investigated (2.5 ≤G _L ≤ 100 K-cm^-1).     

Precipitate effects on the mechanical behavior of aluminum copper alloys: Part II. Modeling

This work focuses on a new hardening formulation accounting for precipitate-induced anisotropy in a binary aluminum-copper precipitation-hardened alloy. Different precipitates were developed upon aging at 190 °C and 260 °C, and corresponding work hardening characteristics were predicted for single and polycrystals. The use of single crystals facilitated the demonstration of the effect of precipitates on the flow anisotropy behavior. Pure aluminum was also studied to highlight the change in deformation mechanisms due to the introduction of precipitates in the matrix. The influence of precipitate-induced anisotropy on single-crystal flow behavior was clearly established, again relating to the precipitate character. Simulations are presented for several single-crystal orientations and polycrystals, and they display good agreement with experiments. The work demonstrates that precipitate-induced anisotropy can dominate over the crystal anisotropy effects in some cases.     

Precipitate effects on the mechanical behavior of aluminum copper alloys: Part II. Modeling

This work focuses on a new hardening formulation accounting for precipitate-induced anisotropy in a binary aluminum-copper precipitation-hardened alloy. Different precipitates were developed upon aging at 190°C and 260°C, and corresponding work hardening characteristics were predicted for single and polycrystals. The use of single crystals facilitated the demonstration of the effect of precipitates on the flow anisotropy behavior. Pure aluminum was also studied to highlight the change in deformation mechanisms due to the introduction of precipitates in the matrix. The influence of precipitate-induced anisotropy on single-crystal flow behavior was clearly established, again relating to the precipitate character. Simulations are presented for several single-crystal orientations and polycrystals, and they display good agreement with experiments. The work demonstrates that precipitate-induced anisotropy can dominate over the crystal anisotropy effects in some cases. T. FOGLESONG formerly with the Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801     

Crack-tip behaviors of stationary and growing cracks in Al-Fe-X alloys: Part II. Crack opening profile

The crack opening behaviors of monotonically loaded stationary and growing cracks in Al-Fe-X alloys have been examined using the stereoimaging technique. Crack opening displacements (COD’s) have been measured as a function of distance behind the crack tip at different load levels. By comparing with existing asymptotic solutions, the experimental COD results confirm the dominance of the HRR (Hutchinson,^[4,6] and Rice and Rosengren^[5]) singularity in a stationary crack, the logarithmic singularity in a growing crack, and the transition from the HRR to the logarithmic singularity when a stationary crack extends by a small increment. In addition to the In (r) singularity, experimental evidence suggests the presence of a In² (r) singularity in plane stress cracks growing into intense shear bands.     

Modeling the microstructural changes during hot tandem rolling of AA5XXX aluminum alloys: Part II. Textural evolution

In Part II of this article, the experimental work undertaken to measure the effect of deformation parameters (temperature, strain, and strain rate) on the texture formation during hot deformation and the evolution during subsequent recrystallization is described. In addition, the isothermal kinetics of development of individual texture components were also determined. A neutron diffractometer was used to measure the texture in the as-hot-deformed aluminum samples, and the samples were then heat treated in a 400 °C salt bath for various lengths of time, with the texture being remeasured at various stages in the recrystallization process. Using data from the experimental program, the texture evolution during recrystallization was modeled by applying a modified form of the Avrami equation. Results indicated that, of the deformation parameters studied, textural development was most sensitive to the deformation temperature for both alloys. In addition, modeling results revealed that the Cu component ({112} 〈111〉) was the first to recrystallize, typically followed by the S ({123} 〈634〉) and Bs ({110} 〈112〉) components. This is in agreement with earlier work which indicated that the Bs component was the hardest to recrystallize, possibly because it is able to deform on very few slip systems and, hence, the dislocation interaction may be low.     

Decomposition in Al-Zn alloys: Part II. Decomposition during continuous cooling

A small angle X-ray scattering study (SAS) has been made of decomposition during contin uous cooling in four binary Al-Zn alloys with compositions spanning the miscibility gap and in two ternary alloys, each containing 22 at. pct Zn plus small amounts of Sn and Mg. Plots of logλ _m (wavelength receiving maximum amplification during the quench)vs logQ (quench rate) yield slopes of approximately -1/3 for all alloys, indicating that coarsening plays an important role during the quench. In addition, measurements of integrated area under the SAS spectra indicate that decomposition is essentially complete in the quenched condition for all of the alloys studied.     

Decomposition in Al-Zn alloys: Part II. Decomposition during continuous cooling

A small angle X-ray scattering study (SAS) has been made of decomposition during contin uous cooling in four binary Al-Zn alloys with compositions spanning the miscibility gap and in two ternary alloys, each containing 22 at. pct Zn plus small amounts of Sn and Mg. Plots of logλ _m (wavelength receiving maximum amplification during the quench)vs logQ (quench rate) yield slopes of approximately -1/3 for all alloys, indicating that coarsening plays an important role during the quench. In addition, measurements of integrated area under the SAS spectra indicate that decomposition is essentially complete in the quenched condition for all of the alloys studied. DENNIS T. LEWANDOWSKI, formerly a graduate student at Michigan Technological University. Now on sabbatical leave to Caterpillar Tractor Co., Mapleton Plant, Mapleton, Ill. 61554.     

Wetting of ceramic particulates with liquid aluminum alloys: Part II. Study of wettability

Wetting phenomena in ceramic particulate/liquid Al-alloy systems were investigated experimentally using a new pressure infiltration technique developed by the authors. Studies were performed on two different ceramic particulates, SiC and B₄C, with four different liquid aluminum alloy matrices, pure Al, Al-Cu, Al-Si, and Al-Mg. Five major variables tested to study wetting phenomena in ceramic/Al-alloy systems were holding time, melt temperature, alloying element, gas atmosphere, and particulate. Metal: ceramic interfaces were investigated with optical microscopy, SEM, EPMA, and Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) in order to understand better the wetting process. The threshold infiltration pressure decreased with, temperature as well as with pressurization time for all the ceramic/metal systems. A strong correlation was found between the alloying effect on the threshold pressure and the free energy of formation of oxide phase of the alloying element. More reactive alloying elements were more effective in improving wettability. In air atmospheres, the threshold pressure usually increased markedly as a result of a thick oxide layer formation on the liquid front. Compacts of B₄C particulates showed lower threshold pressures than those of SiC, particulates. Fracture occurred in a generally brittle manner in infiltrated SiC, specimens. AES element profiles on the fracture surfaces showed fast diffusion of Si, and pile-up of C at the metal∶SiC boundaries which promoted fracture through the carbon-rich layer. The fracture surfaces of infiltrated B₄C specimens indicated plastic deformation, hence a more ductile failure mode.     

Hydrogen evolution during directional solidification and its effect on porosity formation in aluminum alloys

Most of the models for predicting porosity formation in aluminum alloy castings use a simple mass balance, such as the lever rule, to track hydrogen enrichment in the interdendritic liquid. However, the hydrogen concentration predicted by the lever rule is typically too low to satisfy the threshold concentration for pore nucleation based on classical nucleation and growth theory. As a result, important features of microporosity such as the size and spacing of pores cannot be treated properly. In this article, the hydrogen concentration during the directional solidification of an Al-4.5 pct Cu alloy is calculated, assuming hydrogen rejection during solidification and diffusion in the mushy zone. The calculation shows that the use of the lever rule greatly underestimates the hydrogen concentration at the eutectic front. This is due to the fact that the eutectic front also rejects hydrogen and that this is not considered in the use of the lever rule. Results of numerical simulations that consider hydrogen rejection and diffusion are compared with results obtained using the lever rule. The comparison indicates that actual hydrogen concentrations may be orders of magnitude higher than that predicted by the lever rule. It is suggested that the lever rule should not be used in predicting porosity nucleation. The model outlined in this article is used to propose and explain the formation of a wavelike distribution of pores during directional solidification.     

Effect of process parameters on transport phenomena during solidification in the presence of electromagnetic stirring

In the present work, a numerical study is performed to predict the effect of process parameters on transport phenomena during solidification of aluminium alloy A356 in the presence of electromagnetic stirring. A set of single-phase governing equations of mass, momentum, energy and species conservation is used to represent the solidification process and the associated fluid flow, heat and mass transfer. In the model, the electromagnetic forces are incorporated using an analytical solution of Maxwell equation in the momentum conservation equations and the slurry rheology during solidification is represented using an experimentally determined variable viscosity function. Finally, the set of governing equations is solved for various process conditions using a pressure based finite volume technique, along with an enthalpy based phase change algorithm. In present work, the effect of stirring intensity and cooling rate are considered. It is found that increasing stirring intensity results in increase of slurry velocity and corresponding increase in the fraction of solid in the slurry. In addition, the increasing stirring intensity results uniform distribution of species and fraction of solid in the slurry. It is also found from the simulation that the distribution of solid fraction and species is dependent on cooling rate conditions. At low cooling rate, the fragmentation of dendrites from the solid/liquid interface is more.     

Melting and solidification in microgravity of sintered aluminum powder alloys

Results of melting and solidification experiments in μ-g of sintered aluminum powder alloys (with 4 pct and 7 pct of A1₂O₃) are presented. Thin oxide films have been used as tight containers which remain adherent during melting and solidification. Convective motion in melted metals in μ-g are indicated from observations of the oxide particle distribution after melting and solidification. Effects of Marangoni convection are always observed in relatively large cylindrical samples, 5 mm diameters, melted and solidified in μ-g. Thin disc-shaped samples do not present evidence of convective motions in μ-g. Even in the absence of convective motion in the thin samples, some particle aggregation occurs, depending on the interactions with the solidification front and conditioned by diffusion controlled critical radii for capture in the solid. This paper is based on a presentation made in the symposium “Experimental Methods for Microgravity Materials Science Research” presented at the 1988 TMS-AIME Annual Meeting in Phoenix, Arizona, January 25–29, 1988, under the auspices of the ASM/MSD Thermodynamic Data Committee and the Material Processing Committee.