Characterisation of a gold foil-based Bonner sphere set and measurements of neutron spectra at a medical accelerator

The characteristics of a Bonner sphere set with gold foils as the thermal neutron sensor are described. To illustrate the application of this neutron spectrometer in a pulsed field with an intense photon component, the results of measurements at a hospital electron accelerator are presented.     

Neutron measurements in a Varian 2,100C LINAC facility using a Bonner sphere system based on passive gold activation detectors

The use of high-energy linear electron accelerators (LINACs) for medical cancer treatments is widespread on an international scale. The associated bremsstrahlung X rays may produce neutrons as a result of subsequent photonuclear reactions with the different materials constituting the accelerator head. The generated neutron field is highly variable and depends strongly on the beam energy, on the accelerator shielding, on the flattering filter as well as on the movable collimators (jaws) design and on the irradiation field geometry. An estimate of this photoneutron component is, thus, of practical interest to quantify the radiological risk for the working staff and patients. Due to high frequency electromagnetic fields, and also to the presence of abundant leaked and scattered photons in these installations, measurements of the corresponding neutron fields by active dosemeters are extremely difficult. A modified version of the Bonner sphere system, based on passive gold activation detectors, has been used to perform neutron measurements at two points in a Varian 2,100C LINAC facility. A home-made unfolding procedure (CDM) has been utilised to determine the neutron spectra present at the measurement points. Results indicate that the giant dipole resonance process is the most adequate model to explain neutron production in the LINAC and that a thermal component is present at the measurement points.     

Monte Carlo calculations and validation of a gold foil-based Bonner sphere system

The Grup de Física de les Radiacions (GFR) of the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), in collaboration with the Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety (IRSN), has developed a passive Bonner sphere system (UAB-BSS), with gold foils as thermal neutron detectors, for application in pulsed neutron fields or in mixed neutron-photon fields with high photon intensities. In such fields, active devices suffer from saturation and dead-time effects. The MCNPX Monte-Carlo code has been used to determine the response to neutrons of different energies of each polyethylene sphere belonging to the BSS. The passive UAB-BSS system was characterised with the ISO (252)Cf reference source at the IRSN facilities. The energy distribution of the reference source neutron fluence was folded with the response functions for comparison with the experimental data. A good agreement between the experimental and calculated count rates was found.     

Characterization of Bonner sphere systems at monoenergetic and thermal neutron fields

The Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety (IRSN) and the GFR, Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona (UAB) use Bonner spheres (BS) for neutron spectrometry at workplaces. The two systems, equipped with similar cylindrical 3He proportional counters, were simulated with the MCNP Monte-Carlo code to determine the response to neutrons of different energies for each polyethylene sphere. The BS systems were characterized at monoenergetic and thermal neutron fields. Measurements were performed at the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) and at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) standard laboratories, and with the newly characterized IRSN 'SIGMA' thermal neutron facility. The energy distribution of the reference neutron fluence was folded with the response functions for comparison purposes with the experimental data. In almost all cases related to monoenergetic neutrons, a good agreement between the experimental and the calculated count rates was found, and some discrepancies of a few per cent were observed in the thermal region.     

The calibration of Bonner sphere spectrometer

Bonner sphere spectrometer (BSS) is used in radiation protection measurement because of its wide energy range (thermal to MeV) and easy operation. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) has used BSS to obtain neutron spectrum and has used the neutron spectrum to estimate neutron dose or induced activity. Calibration of BSS is important to estimate precise neutron dose or induced activity. MHI BSS was calibrated at National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST). The calibration results at AIST are in good agreement with calculation results.     

Neutron spectrometry in a PET cyclotron with a Bonner sphere system

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a non-invasive medical imaging technique normally used for diagnostic purposes to determine the location and concentration of physiologically active compounds in a human body. An unshielded cyclotron is used for PET at the Clinica Universitaria de Navarra to produce short-lived positron emitting radionuclides ((15)O, (13)N, (11)C and (18)F) by bombarding appropriate target material with proton or deuteron beams with energies up to 18 and 9 MeV, respectively. Subsequent nuclear reactions may generate undesirable neutrons that should be evaluated and controlled. In this study, the neutron measurements performed with an active and a passive Bonner sphere systems at different locations outside and inside the cyclotron vault during operation have been presented. The neutron spectrum at each location was determined with an unfolding code developed by the authors.     

Response matrix of an extended Bonner sphere system

We have developed a system of Bonner spheres designed for use around high-energy accelerators. The upper energy limit of the system was extended using a lead radiator, which acts as an energy converter via the (n,xn) reaction. In addition, we use ¹¹C activation as an additional component integrated into the system and the spectra unfolding process. In the first version of the system, the lead radiator was present in only one sphere with diameter of 30.48 cm. The object of the present work was to investigate the geometry of the lead radiator and its use in moderators of several different sizes. As a result, we have developed a modular design and calculated the response matrix of the new system.     

Additional experimental tests of the Bonner sphere neutron spectrometer

In a continued effort to experimentally test Bonner sphere spectrometer systems, the results reported in this paper include: (1) a new partial illumination correction factor which has been determined to correct an error in the previous work, (2) a new spectral unfolding code, BONABS, which has been included in these tests (in addition to the previously used SWIFT code) and (3) scandium and uranium filtered beams which have been measured. The results indicate a small improvement in energy prediction capabilities due to the corrected partial illumination factor and reasonable agreement between the SWIFT and BONABS unfolding codes for the spectra tested.     

Performance of three different unfolding procedures connected to Bonner sphere data

This paper presents the results obtained in a comparison of three neutron spectrum unfolding procedures based on the SAND, MINCHI and UNFANA computer programs. The calculations were performed with data obtained previously from measurements using the PTB Bonner sphere spectrometer and taken from the literature; the neutron dosimetry was done with the Leake rem-meter. The evaluation of some spectrum hardness quantifiers is also reported. The codes give comparable neutron spectrum results. Relative to ambient dose equivalent derived from the Bonner sphere system, as a function of the unfolding code used, the Leake calculated readings were typically 1.16 to 1.91 and 1.58 to 2.69 times larger for the environment of a transport cask with spent fuel elements (Clab) and inside the containment building of a pressurised water reactor (Ring-G), respectively, depending on the calibration fields.     

Characterisation of a neutron beam available at the RPI using a set of Bonner spheres

The use of Bonner spheres to characterise radiation fields is abundantly documented in the literature. This study, carried out using the state-of-the-art Monte Carlo code MCNPX and the deconvolution program MAXED, aims to characterise the RPI epithermal neutron beam using of a set of Bonner spheres of different radii surrounding a 3He detector. The energy range of interest in this study covers from thermal to 10 MeV. This purely computational study aims to assess the feasibility of using the method previously mentioned to improve the knowledge of the energy and intensity characteristics of the epithermal beam.     

Homogeneity analysis in a Korte--Schmidt-type integrating gold sphere

Homogeneity measurements in a gold-coated integrating sphere at eight wavelengths in the range from 400 to 2000 nm are presented and discussed. The inner sphere wall was scanned with a mirror-based internal sphere scanner at 288 different positions. The spatially resolved measurements show the transition from poor reflectivity, associated with large inhomogeneities at 400 nm, to high reflectivity in the infrared region at 2000 nm, associated with only small deviations. From the measurements the spectrally dependent relative uncertainty of the radiance of the inner sphere wall was deduced. A spectrally dependent sphere homogeneity correction factor F(lambda) relative to a specific point within the sphere wall was also derived.     

Characterisation of the IPNE Bonner sphere spectrometer by comparison with the PTB system

An existing set of Bonner spheres of the Institute for Physics and Nuclear Engineering in Bucharest has been modified following the PTB design for application of an ³He-filled SP9 counter. By simple interpolations of the fluence responses of the PTB spheres, a preliminary fluence response matrix could be established for the IPNE Bonner sphere set. For further adjustments of the preliminary responses and for validation of the final fluence response matrix of the Romanian Bonner sphere spectrometer, calibration measurements with a reference ²⁵²Cf neutron source and joint measurements, including the PTB Bonner sphere spectrometer, were performed in a few neutron fields differing substantially in their spectral distributions. It is estimated that the integral neutron fluences and dose-equivalent values can now be determined with the Romanian spectrometer with uncertainties of about ±4% and ±8%, respectively.     

Performance of the UAB and the INFN-LNF Bonner sphere spectrometers in quasi monoenergetic neutron fields

In the framework of collaboration between the Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona and the INFN Frascati National Laboratories, an experimental Bonner Sphere neutron spectrometry exercise has been performed in the 2.5 MeV and 14.2 MeV quasi monoenergetic neutron beams of the ENEA Fast Neutron Generator. The neutron spectra at given distances from the accelerator target have been determined, taking advantage of the new unfolding FRUIT code, recently developed by the LNF group. The results show a good coherence between the two spectrometers, and between the measured and simulated data.     

Neutron field measurements of the CRNA OB26 irradiator using a Bonner sphere spectrometer for radiation protection purposes

The present work deals with the Bonner sphere spectrometer (BSS) measurements performed, to support the authors' Monte-Carlo calculations, to estimate accurately the main characteristics of the neutron field of the (241)Am-Be-based OB26 irradiator acquired for radiation protection purposes by the Nuclear Research Centre of Algiers. The measurements were performed at a reference irradiation position selected at 150 cm from the geometrical centre of the neutron source. The spectrometric system in use is based on a central spherical (3)He thermal neutron proportional counter. The response matrix of the present spectrometer has been taken to be similar to the original Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) (Braunschweig, Germany) BSS's response matrix, with a five bins per decade energy group structure, as there is no significant difference in the BSS's physical characteristics. Thereafter, the authors' BSS measurements were used together with MCNP5 results to unfold the neutron spectrum by means of MAXED and GRAVEL computer codes from the U.M.G. 3.3 package, developed at PTB. Besides, sensitivity analysis has been performed to test the consistency of the unfolding procedure. It reveals that no significant discrepancy was observed in the total neutron fluence and total ambient dose values following the perturbation of some pertinent unfolding parameters except for the case where a 10 bins energy structure was assumed for the guess spectrum. In this latter case, a 5 % difference was observed in the ambient dose equivalent compared with the reference case. Finally, a comparative study performed between different counting systems together with MCNP5 and predictive formulas results shows that they were globally satisfactory, highlighting thereby the relevance of the unfolding procedure and the reliability of the obtained results.     

Bonner sphere neutron spectrometry at nuclear workplaces in the framework of the EVIDOS project

The Institute for Radiological protection and Nuclear Safety was engaged in the EC funded EVIDOS project to provide reference spectrometry data using its Bonner sphere system. The data were processed by means of two unfolding codes, NUBAY and GRAVEL, both provided by the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt. The NUBAY program, based on Bayesian parameter estimation methods, assumes a parameterised spectrum and provides posterior probability distributions for the parameters. The code GRAVEL, an iterative algorithm based on SAND-II, was used with various default spectra, among them the NUBAY solution. The BS measurements were used to establish the neutron fluence energy distributions and reference values for the neutron ambient dose equivalent. As this quantity depends strongly on the high energy neutrons, a sensitivity analysis was done by unfolding the BS data with GRAVEL using the NUBAY solution spectrum as default with various changes in the parameters of the high energy peak. This new method of analysing Bonner sphere data allowed the determination of reliable neutron spectra, as well as a very good estimate of the corresponding integral quantities with small associated uncertainties.     

Sensitivity study of CR39 track detector in an extended range Bonner sphere spectrometer

Bonner sphere spectrometers (BSS) are being used widely in neutron spectrometry since 1960. The response to neutrons of these moderating detectors spans over a broad energy range. This work discusses the measurement of the sensitivity of an extended range BSS hosting a CR39 nuclear track detector coupled to a boron converter. Two kinds of boron converters were tested, the first made by natural boron and a second one enriched in (10)B. The BSS response functions were calculated with Monte Carlo simulation using the MCNPX 2.4.0. and the FLUKA codes.     

Dynamic observation of dislocation-free plastic deformation in gold thin foils

Ductile fracture of metals produces a thin foil portion, which is observable by transmission electron microscopy, at the fractured edge. The thin foil portion shows unusual deformation microstructure, which contains no dislocations, but contains vacancy-type point defect clusters at extraordinarily high density. Dynamic observation of the deformation process revealed that these defect clusters are produced in the portion of local heavy deformation; however, no dislocation motion was observed during the course of the heavy plastic deformation, constituting direct evidence that the unusual deformation microstructure is produced by plastic deformation without dislocations. Also, the deformation was found to involve 14% elastic deformation, indicating that the dislocation-free plastic deformation occurs under an extraordinarily high internal stress level of more than 10 GPa, which is comparable to the ideal strength of metals. Furthermore, during the dislocation-free plastic deformation, equal-thickness fringes were found to disappear temporarily, suggesting that instability of crystalline state under extraordinarily high internal stress level is a key factor for the mechanism of dislocation-free plastic deformation.     

Measurement of the neutron fields produced by a 62 MeV proton beam on a PMMA phantom using extended range Bonner sphere spectrometers

The experimental characterization of the neutron fields produced as parasitic effect in medical accelerators is assuming an increased importance for either the patient protection or the facility design aspects. Medical accelerators are diverse in terms of particle type (electrons or hadrons) and energy, but the radiation fields around them have in common (provided that a given threshold energy is reached) the presence of neutrons with energy span over several orders of magnitude. Due to the large variability of neutron energy, field or dosimetry measurements in these workplaces are very complex, and in general, cannot be performed with ready-to-use commercial instruments.In spite of its poor energy resolution, the Bonner Sphere Spectrometer (BSS) is the only instrument able to simultaneously determine all spectral components in such workplaces. The energy range of this instrument is limited to E<20 MeV if only polyethylene spheres are used, but can be extended to hundreds of MeV by including metal-loaded spheres (extended range BSS, indicated with ERBSS).With the aim of providing useful data to the scientific community involved in neutron measurements at hadron therapy facilities, an ERBSS experiment was carried out at the Centro di AdroTerapia e Applicazioni Nucleari Avanzate (CATANA) of INFN—LNS (Laboratori Nazionali del Sud), where a proton beam routinely used for ophthalmic cancer treatments is available. The 62 MeV beam was directed towards a PMMA phantom, simulating the patient, and two neutron measurement points were established at 0° and 90° with respect to the beam-line. Here the ERBSS of UAB (Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona—Grup de Física de les Radiacions) and INFN (Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare—Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati) were exposed to characterize the “forward” and “sideward” proton-induced neutron fields. The use of two ERBSS characterized by different set of spheres, central detectors, and independently established and calibrated, is important for guaranteeing the robustness of the measured spectra and estimating their overall uncertainties.     

腐蚀Al箔集流体对球状LiFePO4/C复合材料电性能的影响

以Fe （NO₃）₃9H₂O、H₃PO₄、HNO₃为原料,采用液相结晶法制备类球状FePO₄前驱体,后续运用高温固相还原法制备球状LiFePO₄/C复合材料。对腐蚀后的Al箔进行SEM、金相显微镜和测厚规表征分析。以腐蚀后的Al箔作为Li离子电池正极材料LiFePO₄/C复合材料的集流体时进行电性能测试,结果表明：腐蚀Al箔表面形成密集有序的三维微方孔,内部也形成了密集的隧道孔且Al箔厚度减少了14.29%。以腐蚀后Al箔作为集流体时,LiFePO₄/C复合材料的电性能得到改善,在0.1 C下首次放电容量为153 mAh·g^-1,电极反应电阻为51.12 Ω,且具有良好的倍率性能和循环稳定性能。