跨国水资源利用的无害原则与国际赔偿责任——兼论松花江水污染事件中的损害赔偿责任问题

无害原则是国际水资源法的基本原则,国际流域的沿岸国在自己领土内利用国际流域水资源时,应当采取一切适当措施,预防、减少和控制对其他沿岸国或其环境的重大损害。国际社会目前还没有就国际法不加禁止的但是造成损害性后果的国际水资源利用行为建立国家赔偿责任制度。     

盖巴斯科夫—拉基玛洛大坝案对国际环境法发展的影响及启示

盖巴斯科夫—拉基玛洛大坝案是国际法庭首例仲裁解决的生态环境案例。它推动了现有的国际环境原则可持续发展原则、风险预防原则等等特殊的环境法原则提升到国际法的基本原则范畴。在国家责任方面不能仅以对环境造成损害后果来作为追究责任的前提。也应该考虑对防止损害费用的补偿；另一方面针对中国国际河流水资源的开发和利用，笔者也提出了几点建议，以冀更好地推动我国水资源的环境保护。     

国际河流的开发与管理

目前全世界共有国际河流２６１条，大多数已得到部分开发利用。随着全球缺水问题的日益严重，越来越多的国家把注意力集中到了国际河流上。国际河流的开发与管理涉及国家主权、优先权等一些复杂、敏感的问题，为此联合国机构等通过了一些专门关于国际河流的公约和规则，其中《国际河流水利用的赫尔辛基规则》和《国际水道非航行使用法公约》最有影响。但对涉及水量消耗的国际河流开发工程，过去通常的做法是通过签订协议、成立管理机     

关于国际河流水资源利用问题的探讨

吉林省是水资源短缺的省份,中西部地区缺水严重,流经省内腹地的主要江河水资源开发利用指标已接近饱和,而国际河流却具有很大的开发潜力。借鉴我国已建设的利用国际河流工程情况,提出应尽早开展吉林省鸭绿江水资源利用的前期论证工作,通过建设调引水工程争取早日实施。实施界河鸭绿江调引水工程,引水进入第二松花江,对吉林省中西部地区经济社会和生态环境的协调与可持续发展具有重大意义。     

跨界水资源管理原则分析

分析回顾了恒河流域开发利用两项双边条约中体现的跨界水资源管理原则,即公平合理利用,避免重大侵害,合作与信息交换,通知、磋商及谈判以及和平解决争端等国际上认可的跨界水资源管理原则。通过对两项条约及联合国水道公约等进行分析比较,详细介绍了上述原则的概念与订立过程及存在的争议。     

水权的转让与补偿及实践初探

“500”水库配水工程建成以后，西延干渠受水区水量配置方案打破了原有的水资源分配格局。根据水权理论，乌鲁木齐河下游的用水户把原来已拥有的下游用水使用权转让给上游用水户，上游用水户则应向下游用水户支付一定的水权转让代价。     

国外国际河流的主要开发方式

国际河流与国内河流一样,在开发模式上具有一定的共性。如在上游建以发电为主要目标、对河流径流进行调节的高坝水库,上中游水库蓄洪可减少下游洪水;在下游地区,则建设多利用目标的水库,尽量减少淹没损失等。然而,由于国际河流流域跨越了国界,其开发利用所产生的社会、生态、     

关于加快我国国际河流水资源开发利用的思考

我国是世界上国际河流最多的国家之一,仅次于俄罗斯、阿根廷,与智利并列第3.公平、合理和加快开发利用国际河流的水资源对边疆地区乃至全国经济的可持续发展将起到重大作用.从我国国际河流的分布和特点出发,分析国际河流水资源、水能、航运和生态资源的重要地位和作用;借鉴国际河流的开发经验,总结国际河流水资源开发利用模式;提出加快我国国际河流水资源开发的思考和建议.     

简述国际淡水资源的立法保护

一、国际淡水资源的概念国际淡水资源又称为国际水资源或跨国淡水资源,目前国际上还没有统一的定义。《联合国环境规划署环境法教程》的定义是,国际水资源就是共享水资源,包括河流、湖泊及其大小支流,或者河流的入口和出口(通常称为流域)以及处于两国或更多国家管辖之内的地下水系统。我     

大气水资源的产权问题研究

大气水是陆地上最大的一部分淡水资源，但是由于其产权不明造成了现实中的许多利益矛盾和纠纷，也给其有效利用带来了困难。因此，根据目前我国地表水的产权现状与国内外有关水产权的理论，提出了明晰大气水资源产权的主要原则：第一，大气水资源所有权应该属于国家，所有权和使用权应分离；第二，国家宏观上统一配置使用权，使用权在微观上可以交易；第三，对大气水资源产权要有效约束，把是否科学合理用水作为给予和剥夺大气水资源使用和受益权的标准。     

Downstream riparians can also harm upstream riparians: the concept of foreclosure of future uses

It is commonly believed that only upstream riparians can harm downstream riparians by affecting the quantity or quality of water flow to them. It is not generally realized that downstream riparians can also harm upstream riparians by foreclosing their future uses of water through the prior use of, and the claiming of rights to such water. This article analyzes the concept of foreclosure of future uses, and concludes that cooperation between riparian states can adequately address the concerns and interests of all riparians.     

Modelling Equitable and Reasonable Water Sharing in Transboundary Rivers: the Case of Sirwan-Diyala River

There are over 260 transboundary river and lake basins in the world that many of them are facing great challenges of water sharing between riparian countries concerned. The 1997 UN Watercourses Convention, entered into force in 2014, includes articles and factors on water sharing which have not been completely used for modelling of the basins yet. In this paper, legal aspects (i.e. Articles 5, 6, 7 and 10 of the Convention) are integrated with a technical approach for water allocation in transboundary rivers. For this purpose, a new conceptual model is developed for quantification of the Convention provisions concerning equitable and reasonable water sharing. The method is applied to the Sirwan-Diyala transboundary river shared by Iran and Iraq. Some indicators are developed and quantified for determination of water shares of the riparian countries and different scenarios considering extreme and equal weights of the factors are defined. The basin is simulated by WEAP model to evaluate effects of the scenarios on up- and downstream of the basin. Five demand management alternatives comprising increasing of irrigation efficiency and eliminating second cultivation are proposed as appropriate measures for elimination or mitigation of possible significant harm. The proposed technical-legal approach paves the way for enhancing bargaining potentials of the riparian countries and increasing their cooperation to achieve a win-win solution in using waters of transboundary rivers.     

An Integrated Decision Support Framework for Incorporating Fairness and Stability Concerns into River Water Allocation

Self-enforceable and sustainable management strategies for transboundary rivers necessitate synchronously considering fairness and stability, which involves synthesizing the multidimensional nature of hydrology, environment, and socio-economy. Based on the equitable and reasonable principles of international resource distributions defined by the UN Watercourses Convention, this study proposed an integrated decision support framework by combining the multi-criteria decision making, the bankruptcy theory, and the power index with the aim of managing transboundary rivers fairly and sustainably. Subsequently, an optimization model based on this new framework was established by introducing the linear interval function to formulate the utility objective for all agents. Finally, using the Dongjiang River Basin in China to illustrate the availability of the proposed framework and optimization model. The results showed that the proposed methods could provide insights for transboundary river management through simultaneous consideration of the fairness and stability criteria.

     

Recent Developments of the International Law Commission Regarding International Watercourses and Their Implications for the Nile River

ABSTRACT

The International Law Commission of the United Nations has recently presented a set of Rules on the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses to the General Assembly for approval. This article evaluates the potential implications of this new legal regime for the unusual but important case of the Nile River; which is dominated by the strength and control of its furthest downstream state, Egypt. The relationship between upstream and downstream riparian states is critical in determining the applicability of any new legal regime as is shown by the Nile River example.

This article begins with a presentation and evaluation of the International Law Commissions new legal framework for international watercourses with primary focus on the General Principles. Following an evaluation of these general principles, the international situation of the Nile River is described, illuminating the need for new legal solutions to historically troublesome water conflicts. The article concludes with an evaluation of the potential implications of the International Law Commission's Rules on the Non-Navigational Uses of lnternational Watercourses for the Nile River and more broadly for international water law in general.     

The Helsinki Rules,the UN Watercourses Convention and the Berlin Rules: Perspectives on International Water Law

Shared water resources remain the most important area without a universal treaty regulating the uses and protection of such resources. This is notwithstanding the extensive work of two scholarly non-governmental organizations, the Institute of International Law and the International Law Association, as well as the work of the International Law Commission of the United Nations. The work of those institutions resulted in some basic international water law rules, such as the Helsinki and Berlin Rules, and the United Nations Watercourses Convention. The paper analyzes those instruments, discusses the basic areas of similarities and differences among them, and examines the basic challenges facing international water law.     

A Decision Tool for Allocating the Waters of the Jordan River Basin between all Riparian Parties

Shared water resources are strong sources of conflict in the Jordan River basin shared by Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Syria and Lebanon. The control and allocation of water has been explicitly made a part of the ongoing peace negotiations. This article calls for the application of international water law in the resolution of water disputes in the negotiating process. The challenging task for negotiators is to translate water law principles into operating rules and procedures for the equitable apportionment of waters from shared water resources. The negotiators need a decision tool based upon objective criteria or standards to reach equitable entitlements to shared water resources by all parties. This paper introduces a multi-criteria decision tool as a possible approach to the problem of allocating the waters of the Jordan River between all riparian parties. The prime principle of the criteria is equitable allocation factors identified by water law. A general mathematical model was derived in which the proportional entitlements of the Jordan River basin waters were determined to the five riparians. It is hoped that, waternegotiators review this approach.     

基于博弈论组合赋权法的澜沧江-湄公河水量分配

为了合理分配澜沧江-湄公河的水资源,以公平合理利用基本原则为基础,充分考虑公平性和现状性,并兼顾效率性与可持续性,选择了相应的指标建立层次结构,基于结合主观性和客观性因素的思想,分别采用层次分析法和熵权法计算水量分配权重,并采用基于博弈论的组合赋权法对上述权重进行组合,最终得到各国的水量分配权重。以实际用水量占比和水量分配权重对比,结果表明:越南用水量约为其所得分配量的2倍,而其他国家用水量均小于分配量,为了保障各国对水资源的公平合理利用权益,越南应向其他国家进行补偿。结论可为我国在澜沧江-湄公河的水资源开发利用和水利益谈判提供科学支撑。     

International water law and supporting water management principles in the development of a model transboundary agreement between riparians in international river basins

A set of water management principles are analyzed and form the basis for a template for a model transboundary agreement for international river basins. The tenets of international water law, which support the selection of the principles, are analyzed. The principles include equitable and reasonable utilization and the obligation to not cause significant harm as the interrelated and overarching principles of international watercourse management. The development of a template is undertaken because ratification of the 1997 UN watercourses convention is at hand and a template consistent with this convention may facilitate the protection of shared water resources.     

Water Quantity and Quality in the Zerafshan River Basin: Only an Upstream Riparian Problem?

In discussing the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention, McCaffrey (1998) gave a theoretical example of the late-developer problem. This paper complements that theoretical example with a real case study of the Zerafshan basin in Central Asia. While McCaffrey addressed the water quantity issue in his example, the focus here also includes water pollution. The aim of the paper is to analyze some of the provisions of the mechanisms in the field of international water law—the Helsinki Rules and the UN Watercourses Convention—for water quantity and quality aspects, as well as to provide an insight into the basin regarding these two aspects.     

The 1997 United Nations Convention on the Law of Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses: what contribution to the development of the Water Charter for the Volta Basin?

In 2007, the six riparian countries of the Volta Basin adopted the Convention on the Status of the Volta River and the Establishment of Volta Basin Authority (Volta Basin Convention). This legal framework is strongly inspired by the United Nations Convention on the Law of Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses (UNWC). However, the Volta Basin Convention merely states the major international river management principles without specifying either the terms or the procedures for their implementation. This article examines the potential contribution of the UNWC provisions to the development of a water charter.