Marital conflict, maternal and paternal parenting, and child adjustment: A test of mediation and moderation.

Parenting was examined as a mediator of associations between marital and child adjustment, and parent gender was examined as a moderator of associations among marital, parental, and child functioning in 226 families with a school-age child (146 boys). Parenting fully mediated associations between marital conflict and child internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Parent gender did not moderate associations when data from the full sample or families with girls only were evaluated. Parent gender did moderate associations when families with boys were evaluated, with the association between marital conflict and parenting stronger for fathers than mothers. A trend suggested fathers' parenting may be more strongly related to internalizing behavior and mothers' parenting may be more strongly related to externalizing behavior in boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Quality of parental caregiving and security of attachment.

The assumption that qualitative differences in parental behavior are associated with attachment security was examined in a sample of 62 children (M age?=?21.5 mo) who were seen separately with their mothers and fathers. Multiple measures of parental caregiving were used, including 2 qualitative behavioral rating scales and a self-report measure of attitudes and beliefs about childrearing. Analyses of the relation between these measures and maternal and parental Strange Situation classifications of attachment security revealed effects only for mothers and only with 1 parent measure. These results add to a fairly impressive body of evidence indicating inconsistent and often weak associations between parental behavioral and attachment security. Conceptual and methodological issues relevant to the parent–attachment association were identified. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mother and father connectedness and involvement during early adolescence.

The purpose of the current study was to explore how mother’s and father’s connectedness and involvement individually and collectively influence the lives of their children. Specifically, we asked how fathers’ and mothers’ parent–child connectedness and behavioral involvement influenced both problem behaviors (externalizing and internalizing behaviors) and positive outcomes (prosocial behaviors and hope) during early adolescence. Data for this study were taken from the Flourishing Families Project, from which 349 mothers and fathers were selected, along with their early adolescent child (mean age = 11.23 years, SD = .96). Hierarchical regression analyses revealed (even after controlling for child age, gender, and self-regulation) that mothers’ and fathers’ contributions differed, primarily as a function of child outcome. Namely, father (but not mother) connectedness and involvement were negatively related to adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing behaviors, whereas mother (but not father) connectedness and involvement were positively related to adolescents’ prosocial behaviors and hope. We also found that when one parent’s involvement was low (for whatever reason), the other parent’s involvement made a significant and important contribution to the child’s well-being, particularly in the area of internalizing behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting Stability and Change in Toddler Behavior Problems: Contributions of Maternal Behavior and Child Gender.

This study examined the stability and continuity of early-identified behavior problems and the factors associated with this stability. Children and their mothers (N=125) were seen when the children were 2 and 4 years of age. Maternal reports of child externalizing behavior and laboratory observations of child noncompliance were stable from age 2 to age 4. Early externalizing behaviors decreased over time; however, child noncompliance in the laboratory did not. Although few associations were found between maternal positive behavior and child behavior problems, maternal controlling behavior was related to increases in child behavior problems, particularly at high levels of both prior noncompliance and prior maternal control. Child noncompliance was predictive of increases in maternal controlling behavior over time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differences in mothers' and fathers' behaviors toward children: A cross-cultural comparison.

Systematic observations of 78 parent–child dyads in Mexican families revealed a number of differences between maternal and paternal behaviors. Some of the patterns observed run counter to the traditionally held views of Mexican parental roles—for example, that fathers are more aloof and authoritarian, whereas mothers are more warm and nurturant. Fathers, in fact, were found to be more playful and companionable with their children than mothers were, and mothers were more nurturant only in terms of providing immediate physical needs. In addition, fathers, but not mothers, differed significantly in their behavior toward girls and boys: on reprimanding-restrictive and instrumental-directive behaviors they were substantially lower toward girls, whereas they directed more attention and cognitive involvement toward boys. The findings, when compared cross-culturally, proved to be similar to findings obtained in observational studies of parents' interactions with infants and young children in this country. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mothers' and fathers' perceptions of child deviance: Roles of child behavior, parental depression, and marital satisfaction.

Investigated relationships among parental adjustment, parental perception of child behavior, and an independent measure of child behavior, using 61 consecutive referrals to a university psychology clinic of 5–14 yr olds with home or school problems. 61 mothers (41 of whom were married) and 41 fathers completed the Beck Depression Inventory, the Marital Adjustment Test, and the Conners Parent Rating Scale. Children's teachers completed the Conners Teacher Rating Scale. Mothers' ratings of their children's behavior were significantly correlated with teachers' ratings, but fathers' ratings were not. A stepwise multiple regression analysis showed that teachers' ratings accounted for the greatest amount of variance in the prediction of mothers' ratings of child externalizing problems, followed by maternal depression. Results confirm earlier findings of a relation of maternal depression to maternal perception of child externalizing behavior problems but indicate a stronger correlation between maternal ratings and independent measures of child behavior. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Observed and perceived parental overprotection in relation to psychosocial adjustment in preadolescents with a physical disability: The mediational role of behavioral autonomy.

The purpose of this study was to test a mediational model of associations between parental overprotectiveness (OP), behavioral autonomy, and psychosocial adjustment in 68 families with 8- and 9-year-old preadolescents with spina bifida and a demographically matched sample of 68 families with able-bodied children. Measures included questionnaire and observational assessments of parental OP; parent and child reports of behavioral autonomy; and parent, child, and teacher reports of preadolescent adjustment. On the basis of both questionnaire and observational measures of OP, mothers and fathers of children with spina bifida were significantly more overprotective than their counterparts in the able-bodied sample, although this group difference was partially mediated by children's cognitive ability. Both questionnaire and observational measures of parental OP were associated with lower levels of preadolescent decision-making autonomy as well as with parents being less willing to grant autonomy to their offspring in the future. For the questionnaire measure of OP, and only for the spina bifida sample, the mediational model was supported such that parental OP was associated with less behavioral autonomy, which was, in turn, associated with more externalizing problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Good health according to the residents of the community

Although a role for family and parent factors in the development of behavioral problems in childhood is often acknowledged, the roles of specific parental characteristics in relation to specific child actions need further elucidation. We studied parental "Big Five" personality traits and psychiatric diagnoses in relation to their children's antisocial diagnoses and naturalistically observed antisocial behaviors, in boys with and without the diagnosis of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). First, regardless of comorbid antisocial diagnosis, boys with ADHD, more often than comparison boys, had mothers with a major depressive episode and/or marked anxiety symptoms in the past year, and fathers with a childhood history of ADHD. Second, compared to the nondiagnosed group, boys with comorbid ADHD + Oppositional Defiant or Conduct Disorder (ODD/CD) had fathers with lower Agreeableness, higher Neuroticism, and more likelihood of having Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Third, regarding linkages between parental characteristics and child externalizing behaviors, higher rates of child overt antisocial behaviors observed in a naturalistic summer program were associated primarily with maternal characteristics, including higher Neuroticism, lower Conscientiousness, presence of Major Depression, and absence of Generalized Anxiety Disorder. The association of maternal Neuroticism with child aggression was larger in the ADHD than in the comparison group. In contrast, higher rates of observed child covert antisocial behaviors were associated solely with paternal characteristics, including history of substance abuse and higher Openness. Results provide external validation in parent data for a distinction between overt and covert antisocial behaviors and support inclusion of parent personality traits in family studies. The interaction of maternal Neuroticism and child ADHD in predicting child aggression is interpreted in regard to a conceptualization of child by parent "fit."     

Predictive implications of individual differences in attachment.

The "strange situation" is widely used as a procedure for assessing individual differences in the quality of infant–parent attachments. Strange-situation behavior is believed to reflect individual differences in the quality of early parental behavior. The popularity of the procedure rests, in part, on claims concerning the association between strange-situation behavior around 12–20 months of age and subsequent child performance. It is shown here that the empirical support for these claims is quite weak and inconsistent. Studies have been designed in such a way that causal inferences about the direction and nature of effects have been precluded. Furthermore, associations have been found only when the quality of care received (whether good or poor) was likely to have been stable, thus precluding inferences about the formative significance of early (as opposed to contemporaneous) parent–child interaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A naturalistic observation study of the links between parental depressive symptoms and preschoolers' behaviors in everyday life.

Previous research has shown that parental depressive symptoms are linked to a number of negative child outcomes. However, the associations between parental depressive symptoms and actual child behaviors in everyday life remain largely unknown. The aims of this study were to investigate the links between parental depressive symptoms and everyday child behaviors and emotional language use using a novel observational methodology, and to explore the potential moderating role of parent–child conflict. We tracked the behaviors and language use of 35 preschool-aged children for two 1-day periods separated by one year using a child version of the Electronically Activated Recorder, a digital voice recorder that records ambient sounds while participants go about their daily lives. Parental depressive symptoms were positively associated with multiple problem behaviors among children (i.e., crying, acting mad, watching TV) when measured both concurrently and prospectively, and with negative emotion word use prospectively. Further, the links between parental depressive symptoms and child crying were moderated by parents' perceptions of parent–child conflict. This study offers the first empirical evidence of direct links between parental depressive symptoms and child behaviors in daily life and presents a promising research tool for the study of everyday child behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reciprocal models of child behavior and depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers in a sample of children at risk for early conduct problems.

Although much has been written about transactional models in the study of parenting practices, relatively few researchers have used this approach to examine how child behavior might be related to parental well-being. This study used latent growth curve modeling to test transactional models of age 2 child noncompliance, parental depressive symptoms, and age 4 internalizing and externalizing behaviors using a subsample of families in the Early Steps Multisite Study. In unconditional models, maternal depressive symptoms showed a linear decrease from child ages 2 to 4, whereas paternal depression did not show significant change. Observed child noncompliance at age 2 showed significant associations with concurrent reports of maternal depressive symptoms and trend-level associations with paternal depressive symptoms. For both parents, higher levels of initial depressive symptoms were related to increased age 4 child internalizing behaviors. The findings provide support for reciprocal process models of parental depression and child behavior, and this study is one of the first to present empirical evidence that fathers' depressive symptoms have bidirectional associations with their children's behavior in early childhood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal associations between parents' hostility and siblings' externalizing behavior in the context of marital discord.

This study examined longitudinal associations between parents' hostility and siblings' externalizing behavior in the context of interparental discord. The sample included 116 families (mothers, fathers, 2 siblings) assessed in middle childhood, when siblings were, on average, 8 and 10 years old, and in adolescence, at average ages of 14 and 16 years. Parents reported on their hostility toward each child and on each child's externalizing problems. Raters observed interparental hostility, and parents rated their marital quality. Results indicated both within-family and between-families effects. Specifically, the child who received more parental hostility than his or her sibling showed greater increases in externalizing problems than his or her sibling; this association was moderated by marital discord. In addition, the child who exhibited more behavioral problems than his or her sibling received greater increases in hostile mothering than did his or her sibling. Between-families effects were evident, in that children's externalizing problems were associated with increases in mothers' hostility toward both children in the family. Results support transactional models of development and family systems theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parent attributions for inattentive-overactive, oppositional-defiant, and prosocial behaviours in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Compared attributions for and reactions to inattentive-overactive (IO), oppositional-defiant (OD), and prosocial (PRO) child behaviors among parents of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). 26 mothers and 14 fathers of 7.1–14-yr-olds completed a written analogue measure, and 16 mothers and 11 fathers recalled examples of their own child's behavior. On the analogue measure, parents assumed less responsibility for IO child behaviors compared to either OD or PRO behaviors and reacted more negatively to IO and OD behaviors than to PRO behaviors. Also on the analogue measure, parents responded less positively to PRO behaviors presented in the context of IO or OD behaviors compared to PRO behaviors presented in the context of other PRO behaviors, and IO behaviors were rated as less controllable by the child and less of the parent's responsibility when they were presented in the context of OD behaviors. On the recalled behavior measure, parents also reacted more negatively to IO and OD behaviors, and saw these behaviors as less controllable by the child than PRO behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of early maternal employment on toddlers, mothers, and fathers.

Investigated the effects of early maternal employment on toddler development and mothers' and fathers' parenting styles using a family system orientation. The 75 families with firstborn 20-mo-olds varied in maternal employment status (nonemployed, part-, and full-time). Observations were conducted of qualitative dimensions of parent–child relationships (toddler–mother and toddler–father attachment and child–parent problem-solving behavior), quantitative dimensions of family time allocation, and parental childrearing attitudes. Each mother had been employed outside the home prior to the baby's birth. 24 mothers had not been employed since the birth of their children; 23 mothers were employed part-time. Results indicate that maternal employment was not related to toddler outcomes (security of attachment or problem-solving behavior). It was related to the amount of time mothers spent with their children and to some childrearing attitudes and behaviors of fathers and mothers. Findings highlight the importance of examining direct (mother–child) and indirect (father–child) effects in the study of early maternal employment and the ability of families to adapt to a variety of lifestyles. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of daily stress at work on mothers' interactions with preschoolers.

Thirty mother–preschooler dyads were studied for 5 consecutive weekdays. In addition to daily maternal reports of job stressors and parent–child interaction, a subsample of 13 dyads was videotaped during the parent–child reunion at the end of each workday. Mothers were much more likely to respond to an increase in job stressors by withdrawing than by becoming more irritable. Both mothers and independent observers described mothers as more behaviorally and emotionally withdrawn (e.g., less speaking and fewer expressions of affection) on days when the mothers reported greater workloads or interpersonal stress at work. Job stressors may have their strongest impact on the daily parenting behavior of mothers who generally experience higher levels of emotional distress (depressed or anxious mood) and, in particular, mothers who report more Type A behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship of parental warm responsiveness and negativity to emerging behavior problems following traumatic brain injury in young children.

Parenting behaviors play a critical role in the child's behavioral development, particularly for children with neurological deficits. This study examined the relationship of parental warm responsiveness and negativity to changes in behavior following traumatic brain injury (TBI) in young children relative to an age-matched cohort of children with orthopedic injuries (OI). It was hypothesized that responsive parenting would buffer the adverse effects of TBI on child behavior, whereas parental negativity would exacerbate these effects. Children, ages 3–7 years, hospitalized for TBI (n = 80) or OI (n = 113), were seen acutely and again 6 months later. Parent–child dyads were videotaped during free play. Parents completed behavior ratings (Child Behavior Checklist; T. M. Achenbach & L. A. Rescorla, 2001) at both visits, with baseline ratings reflecting preinjury behavior. Hypotheses were tested using multiple regression, with preinjury behavior ratings, race, income, child IQ, family functioning, and acute parental distress serving as covariates. Parental responsiveness and negativity had stronger associations with emerging externalizing behaviors and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms among children with severe TBI. Findings suggest that parenting quality may facilitate or impede behavioral recovery following early TBI. Interventions that increase positive parenting may partially ameliorate emerging behavior problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Post-partum employment patterns, family-based care arrangements, and the mother–infant relationship at age two.

This longitudinal study examined the relations of postpartum maternal employment profiles with infant–mother attachment security, maternal sensitivity, and concurrent child and maternal characteristics in Canada. Ss were 57 mothers (aged 21–37) and their 23–27 mo-old children. Contrary to expectations, dyads where mothers returned to outside work after 6 mo postpartum showed higher Q-sort scores on attachment security than other dyads, and higher sensitivity scores than dyads in which women were not employed outside the home in the 1st 2 yrs. Post 6-mo returners also reported less child domain parental stress, less avoidant coping, and less child externalizing behavior problems than other mothers. Results emphasize the importance of a process-oriented approach to understanding early relationships in a family context. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The association between psychopathology in fathers versus mothers and children's internalizing and externalizing behavior problems: A meta-analysis.

In light of the selective focus on maternal (vs. paternal) psychopathology as a risk factor for child development, this meta-analysis examines the relative strength of the association between psychopathology in mothers versus fathers and the presence of internalizing and externalizing disorders in children. Associations were stronger between maternal than paternal psychopathology and the presence of internalizing (but not externalizing) problems in children, with all average effect sizes being small in magnitude. Relations were moderated by variables that highlight theoretically relevant differences between psychopathology in mothers versus fathers (e.g., age of children studied, type of parental psychopathology) and by variables related to methodological differences across studies (e.g., method of assessing psychopathology in parents and children, type of sample recruited, familial composition). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of marital quality in toddler development.

Examined associations among contemporaneous measures of marital quality, parenting attitudes and behavior, and toddler development in 75 2-parent families with a 20-mo-old child. Child–mother and child–father attachment was assessed in the Strange Situation procedure, and child task behavior was rated during a problem-solving task. Parents completed the Dyadic Adjustment Scale and questionnaires concerning parenting attitudes and perceptions. Independent observations were conducted for parental behavioral sensitivity and couple marital harmony. Findings support the hypothesis that good marital quality would be associated with optimal toddler functioning and sensitive parenting. The magnitude of effect was greater for marriage–parenting associations than for marriage–child associations. Differences in patterns of intercorrelation for mothers and fathers were found and direct and indirect associations between marital quality, parenting, and child development are discussed. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neighborhood disadvantage as a moderator of the association between harsh parenting and toddler-aged children's internalizing and externalizing problems.

Neighborhood dangerousness and belongingness were expected to moderate associations between harsh parenting and toddler-age children's problem behaviors. Fifty-five predominantly African American mothers participated with their 2-year old children. Neighborhood danger, neighborhood belongingness, and children's problem behaviors were measured with mothers' reports. Harsh parenting was measured with observer ratings. Analyses considered variance common to externalizing and internalizing problems, using a total problems score, and unique variance, by controlling for internalizing behavior when predicting externalizing behavior, and vice versa. Regarding the common variance, only the main effects of neighborhood danger and harsh parenting were significantly associated with total problem behavior. In contrast, after controlling for externalizing problems, the positive association between harsh parenting and unique variance in internalizing problems became stronger as neighborhood danger increased. No statistically significant associations emerged for the models predicting the unique variance in externalizing problems or models considering neighborhood belongingness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)