Racial and ethnic harassment and discrimination: In the eye of the beholder?

The nature, rate, and higher-order relationships among facets of racial/ethnic harassment (REH) and discrimination (RED) were examined across five racial/ethnic groups in a sample of 5,000 US military personnel. Using a hierarchical, multigroup confirmatory factor analysis approach, results suggest that the nature of REH and RED do not differ by race, with behavioral items equally representing REH and RED across the different groups. Further, higher-order relationships among the facets of REH and RED do not vary across race, with a single second-order factor accounting for the relationships. This single factor is theorized to represent a root intergroup prejudice that leads to harassment and discrimination. However, as anticipated, individuals from minority groups generally reported higher levels of REH and RED once measurement equivalence has been established. Together, the results suggest that both intergroup prejudice (which is multidirectional) and racism (which originates in powerful groups against other groups) are operating in REH and RED experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family, school, and neighborhood: Links to Chinese American adolescent perceptions of racial/ethnic discrimination.

The purpose of the study was to examine how family, school, and neighborhood factors contributed to Chinese American adolescent perceptions of discrimination. The sample included 185 Chinese American adolescents (mean age = 16.8 years, SD = .81; 58% female; 70% U.S.-born) and their parents. As hypothesized, the results showed that greater parent perceptions of discrimination, more negative school environment, and less availability of cultural resources were related to greater adolescent perceptions of discrimination. Contrary to the hypothesis, parent/adolescent subjective perceptions of ethnic density were related to greater adolescent perceptions of discrimination. The findings suggest that adolescent perceptions of discrimination are related to both within and outside family factors, supporting an ecological approach to understanding racial/ethnic discrimination. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

What college students really think about ethnic student organizations.

In this study, the authors examined European, Hispanic, and African American college students' attitudes toward ethnic student organizations (ESOs). Based on data from Study 1 (N = 750), it was found that students across ethnic groups expressed uncertainty about whether ESOs were beneficial/necessary, fair/acceptable, and about their interest in joining an ESO. As a group, Hispanic and African American students did not believe that ESOs contributed to racial or ethnic separatism on campus, whereas European Americans expressed uncertainty about that possibility. In Study 2, a separate sample of students (N = 631) was randomly assigned to read the mission statement of a White, Hispanic, or African American ESO. Consistent with asymmetry theory, students in general judged the White American ESO as significantly less beneficial/necessary, less fair/acceptable, and as contributing more to racial/ethnic separatism than the Hispanic and African American ESOs. European, Hispanic, and African American students viewed their own ESO most favorably, although European American students were more consistent in their appraisals of ESOs irrespective of the ethnic focus of the ESO. Implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When do the stigmatized stigmatize? The ironic effects of being accountable to (perceived) majority group prejudice-expression norms.

How do frequently stigmatized individuals feel about and respond to members of other potentially stigmatizable groups? Four studies demonstrated that perceptions of majority group norms regarding prejudice expression can shape how minority individuals respond to minority individuals from other groups. Study 1 revealed that Black and White men and women have somewhat different perceptions of Whites' norms regarding prejudice expression. Study 2 manipulated whether evaluations of Native American job candidates were to remain private or to be made public to unfamiliar Whites upon whom the evaluators were dependent: Black men used a strategy of publicly (but not privately) denigrating the minority target to conform to presumed prejudice-expression norms. Study 3, in which the authors explicitly manipulated prejudice-expression norms, and Study 4, in which they manipulated audience race, further supported the role of such norms in eliciting public discrimination against minority group members by other minority group members. The desire to avoid being targeted for discrimination, in conjunction with the perception that the majority endorses discrimination, appears to increase the likelihood that the often-stigmatized will stigmatize others. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial discrimination stress, coping, and depressive symptoms among Asian Americans: A moderation analysis.

The purpose of our study was to explore: (a) the association between racial discrimination stress and depressive symptoms, and (b) how coping (e.g., individualistic/collectivistic and dispositional/situation-specific coping) attenuated or strengthened this association specifically among Asian Americans. Data were collected from 201 Asian Americans in a large Midwestern state university through an online survey. Results from a hierarchical regression indicated that racial discrimination stress significantly predicted depressive symptoms over and beyond perceived general stress and perceived racial discrimination. For the moderation effect, the simple effect analyses indicated that low utilization of reactive coping strategies and a high helpfulness rating of family support reduced the strength of association between racial discrimination stress and depressive symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does ethnic identity buffer or exacerbate the effects of frequent racial discrimination on situational well-being of Asian Americans?

A quasi-experimental vignette study was conducted to test whether ethnic identity moderated the effects of frequent racial discrimination on situational positive and negative affect of Asian American college students. Results showed that imagining multiple incidents of racial discrimination was related to higher negative affect than imagining a single incident. Asian Americans with high ethnic identity reported lower positive affect when imagining multiple incidents of racial discrimination compared to individuals with high ethnic identity imagining a single incident; by contrast, Asian Americans with low ethnic identity reported higher positive affect when imagining multiple incidents of racial discrimination compared to individuals with low ethnic identity imagining a single incident of racial discrimination. Results suggest ethnic identity may exacerbate the association between racial discrimination and situational well-being for Asian Americans. Moreover, post hoc analyses indicate that the relationship between ethnic identity and discrimination is more relevant for U.S.-born Asian Americans than it is for immigrant Asian Americans. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The model minority stereotype: Adolescent experiences and links with adjustment.

The model minority stereotype (MMS) depicts Asian Americans as hardworking, intelligent, and reserved. MMS experiences and associations with adjustment and ethnic identity were examined for 165 adolescents from Asian backgrounds. Results revealed frequent MMS experiences. Through open-ended responses, youth disclosed negative, positive, mixed, or neutral feelings about these experiences. Adolescents who perceived more stereotyping had more positive academic and psychological outcomes, with neither ethnic centrality nor regard moderating these associations. Results imply that the MMS is a salient stereotype with links to adjustment for Asian American adolescents. Despite positive associations, discussion cautions against treating the MMS as a boon as it may still impose challenges to well-being and limits to adolescents' identity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Academic and social motives and drinking behavior.

This longitudinal study of 1,447 first-time college students tested separate time-varying covariate models of the relations between academic and social motives/behaviors and alcohol use and related problems from senior year of high school through the end of the second year in college. Structural equation models identified small but significant inverse relations between academic motives/behaviors and alcohol use across all time points, with relations of somewhat larger magnitude between academic motives/behaviors and alcohol-related problems across all semesters other than senior year in high school. At all time points, there were much larger positive relations between social motives/behaviors and alcohol use across all semesters, with smaller but significant relations between social motives/behaviors and alcohol-related problems. Multi-group models found considerable consistency in the relations between motives/behaviors and alcohol-related outcomes across gender, race/ethnicity, and family history of alcohol problems, although academic motives/behaviors played a stronger protective role for women, and social motives were a more robust risk factor for Caucasian and Latino students and individuals with a positive family history of alcohol problems. Implications for alcohol prevention efforts among college students are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Culturally adapted mental health intervention: A meta-analytic review.

There is a pressing need to enhance the availability and quality of mental health services provided to persons from historically disadvantaged racial and ethnic groups. Many previous authors have advocated that traditional mental health treatments be modified to better match clients' cultural contexts. Numerous studies evaluating culturally adapted interventions have appeared, and the present study used meta-analytic methodology to summarize these data. Across 76 studies the resulting random effects weighted average effect size was d = .45, indicating a moderately strong benefit of culturally adapted interventions. Interventions targeted to a specific cultural group were four times more effective than interventions provided to groups consisting of clients from a variety of cultural backgrounds. Interventions conducted in clients' native language (if other than English) were twice as effective as interventions conducted in English. Recommendations are provided for improving the study of outcomes associated with mental health interventions adapted to the cultural context of the client. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cultural considerations of trauma: Physical, mental and social correlates of intimate partner violence exposure.

There has been an increased appreciation for the need to understand the cultural lenses of survivors and the ways that these lenses may influence both the experience of intimate partner violence and the recovery process following violence. The need for trauma researchers and practitioners to attend to the sociocultural realities of survivors has been advocated by traumatologists of varying theoretical orientations. The Trauma and Violence among Diverse Populations Research Study Group, funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and the Emerging Scholars Interdisciplinary Network, conceptualized the call for authors for this Special Issue. The primary objective of the Issue is to examine and explore the cultural context of intimate partner violence. Through quantitative and qualitative analyses, a greater understanding of intimate partner violence in the lives of African American, Asian American, Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, Latina, and White survivors is gained. While centralizing the voices of ethnically diverse survivors of intimate partner violence, this Special Issue also sheds light on the experience of intimate partner violence from the perspective of women who have traditionally been marginalized in the literature in other ways, specifically women who are impoverished, pregnant, homeless, HIV-positive, and sex workers. The studies in this Special Issue provide clinical and research recommendations aimed at improving the care provided to culturally diverse intimate partner violence survivors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination.

This study examined the role that dimensions of racial identity play regarding the antecedents and consequences of perceived racial discrimination among African Americans. A total of 267 African American college students completed measures of racial identity, perceived racial discrimination, and psychological distress at 2 time points. After controlling for previous perceptions of discrimination, racial centrality was positively associated with subsequent perceived racial discrimination. Additionally, perceived discrimination was positively associated with subsequent event-specific and global psychological distress after accounting for previous perceptions of discrimination and distress. Finally, racial ideology and public regard beliefs moderated the positive relationship between perceived discrimination and subsequent distress. The results illustrate the complex role racial identity plays in the lives of African Americans. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The science and nonscience of psychologists' responses to The Bell Curve.

To serve racially diverse clients effectively, professional psychologists should understand the range of scientific and social forces shaping their own and their clients' lives. A manifestation of such forces, the 1994 publication of R. J. Herrnstein and C. Murray's The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life was an attempt to influence both psychological knowledge and U.S. politics. This article analyzes the book and 5 psychologist authors' responses to it. The responses fell far short of providing a critical analysis of the book's racially biased argument and did little to reduce the misleading picture of race and IQ that the book promulgated. Scrutinizing the whole book--especially connections among scientific knowledge, proposed policy, and professional practice with attention to the "code logic" used--will enable practitioners to recognize and change subtle aspects of racial dynamics that occur in their work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial/ethnic differences in the criterion-related validity of cognitive ability tests: A qualitative and quantitative review.

The correlation between cognitive ability test scores and performance was separately meta-analyzed for Asian, Black, Hispanic, and White racial/ethnic subgroups. Compared to the average White observed correlation ( = .33, N = 903,779), average correlations were lower for Black samples ( = .24, N = 112,194) and Hispanic samples ( = .30, N = 51,205) and approximately equal for Asian samples ( = .33, N = 80,705). Despite some moderating effects (e.g., type of performance criterion, decade of data collection, job complexity), validity favored White over Black and Hispanic test takers in almost all conditions that included a sizable number of studies. Black–White validity comparisons were possible both across and within the 3 broad domains that use cognitive ability tests for high-stakes selection and placement: civilian employment, educational admissions, and the military. The trend of lower Black validity was repeated in each domain; however, average Black–White validity differences were largest in military studies and smallest in educational and employment studies. Further investigation of the reasons for these validity differences is warranted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial and ethnic identity: Developmental perspectives and research.

Developmental research is reviewed to evaluate how race, ethnicity, racial identity, and ethnic identity are defined and investigated for minority populations. First reviewed is how these terms are used in developmental and counseling research. Early practices limited these terms to their demographic denotations (e.g., heritage), but more recent practices have expanded to include socially constructed connotations. Second, developmental research was used to evaluate key assumptions in theories of racial and ethnic identity development, with an emphasis on recent longitudinal studies. Research supports some, but not all, of these developmental predictions. Longitudinal research supported the progressive nature of ethnic and racial identity development and that exposure to racism appears to stimulate further identity development during adolescence. In contrast, available evidence does not support the claims of a developmental hierarchy for racial ideologies and that identity crises are normative. Adjustment was not predicted by a single racial or ethnic identity ideology, but research suggested that the adolescent's sociocultural identity and socialization should be tailored to the nature of the racial and ethnic context for development. Implications for counseling research and practice are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The space between us: Stereotype threat and distance in interracial contexts.

Four studies investigate the role that stereotype threat plays in producing racial distancing behavior in an anticipated conversation paradigm. It was hypothesized that the threat of appearing racist may have the ironic effect of causing Whites to distance themselves from Black conversation partners. In Study 1, participants distanced themselves more from Black partners under conditions of threat, and this distance correlated with the activation of a "White racist" stereotype. In Study 2, it was demonstrated that Whites' interracial distancing behavior was not predicted by explicit or implicit prejudice. Study 3 provides evidence that conceiving of interracial interactions as opportunities to learn may attenuate the negative consequences of threat for Whites. Study 4 found that Whites have conscious access to their experience of stereotype threat and that this awareness may mediate the relationship between threat and distance. These results are discussed within a broader discourse of racial distancing and the possibility that certain identity threats may be as important as prejudice in determining the outcomes of interracial interactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial discrimination and psychological distress: The impact of ethnic identity and age among immigrant and United States-born Asian adults.

The association between racial and ethnic discrimination and psychological distress was examined among 2,047 Asians (18 to 75 years of age) in the National Latino and Asian American Study, the first-ever nationally representative study of mental health among Asians living in the United States. Stratifying the sample by age in years (i.e., 18 to 30, 31 to 40, 41 to 50, 51 to 75) and nativity status (i.e., immigrant vs. U.S.-born), ethnic identity was tested as either a protective or exacerbating factor. Analyses showed that ethnic identity buffered the association between discrimination and mental health for U.S.-born individuals 41 to 50 years of age. For U.S.-born individuals 31 to 40 years of age and 51 to 75 years of age, ethnic identity exacerbated the negative effects of discrimination on mental health. The importance of age and immigrant status for the association between ethnic identity, discrimination, and well-being among Asians in the United States is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial identity, social context, and race-related social cognition in African Americans during middle childhood.

This study examined the effect of changes in racial identity, cross-race friendships, same-race friendships, and classroom racial composition on changes in race-related social cognition from 3rd to 5th grade for 73 African American children. The goal of the study was to determine the extent to which preadolescent racial identity and social context predict expectations of racial discrimination in cross-race social interactions (social expectations). Expectations of racial discrimination were assessed using vignettes of cross-race social situations involving an African American child in a social interaction with European Americans. There were 3 major findings. First, expectations for discrimination declined slightly from 3rd to 5th grade. Second, although racial composition of children's classrooms, number of European American friends, gender, and family poverty status were largely unrelated to social expectations, having more African American friends was associated with expecting more discrimination in cross-racial interactions from 3rd to 5th grade. Third, increases in racial centrality were related to increases in discrimination expectations, and increases in public regard were associated with decreases in discrimination expectations. These data suggest that as early as 3rd grade, children are forming attitudes about their racial group that have implications for their cross-race social interactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)