Women's oral health issues: an exploration of the literature

As interest in women's health issues grows, there is increasing concern that today's practice of medicine may not meet the health needs of women. A primary reason is the gender bias that has been inherent in medical education, research and clinical practice. The prevailing medical viewpoint has often been that the male body is considered to be the norm and that the female body exactly the same except for the reproductive function. This attitude has led to a lack of interest in researching gender differences and a consequent lack of knowledge of women's health issues. Fortunately, there is a movement for change. The Women's Health Interschool Curriculum Committee was formed in January 1992 to develop curricula concerning women's health and examine bias that may exist in existing curricula. The Canadian Women's Health Network has been growing across the country and there have been calls to create a new specialty in women's health. According to Angell, this proposal for a new specialty was provocatively debated in the Journal of Women's Health, which started publication in 1992. There is also a growing concern on how to conduct better research to address women's health needs. As more attention is paid to women's health issues, what will happen in the area of oral health? In health care, it would seem that the mouth has become completely separated from the rest of the body. Health conferences rarely have any oral health content at all. To correct this problem, there must be an increase in general awareness of the importance of oral health as it relates to the overall health of both women and men. Good oral health is more than just decay-free teeth. Oral health encompasses the teeth, the supporting periodontal structures, soft tissues of the mouth and oral pharynx area, temporomandibular joints and muscles of mastication. The mouth is a gateway to the body and will also reflect many systemic health problems, such as diabetes, leukemia and lupus. The second step would be the recognition that women may have different oral health needs and issues than men. The common view may be that teeth are gender free, but how can this be when teeth exist in a body, and that body is male or female? For many years, the primary acknowledged difference between men and women's oral health was pregnancy gingivitis. Like medicine, dentistry must re-examine the viewpoint that women's oral health differs from men's only as it is influenced by reproductive processes. There are many areas where women's oral health may differ from that of men. This paper will explore the literature for potential women's oral health issues in the areas of oral hygiene behaviours, esthetics, eating disorders, temporomandibular disorders, and hormonal influences on periodontal health.     

Gender differences in the adaptive influence of folk beliefs: A longitudinal study of life satisfaction in aging.

Folk beliefs such as "there's a silver lining in every cloud" reflect a positive approach to life that maps onto the notion of interpretive secondary control, and may have consequences for well being. The authors assessed older individuals' agreement with folk beliefs, and examined gender differences in their adaptive implications for well being and positive and negative emotion, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally over 7 years. Following previous research on interpretive secondary control, the authors anticipated that folk beliefs would be (a) more strongly endorsed by or (b) more beneficial to older women than to older men, particularly among those with serious health problems. Although women and men endorsed folk beliefs equally, women benefited more reliably from these beliefs, and women with serious health problems benefited the most. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of mentors for women in animal science: perspectives from government

The purpose of a mentor is to empower individuals to succeed in a professional career in animal science. Effective mentorship programs in animal agriculture will guarantee that more qualified women are retained in our profession, and thereby contribute to workforce diversity. Good mentors are the single most significant contributor to building a successful career. Mentorship programs can be informal or formal. Effective informal mentoring depends on selection of a mentor with a positive attitude that can be a trusted advisor and good listener. The Beltsville Area of USDA, ARS, offers a Mentor Program in which employees voluntarily participate as mentors or protégés. The participants are paired according to individual objectives with the overall goal to enhance their career development. The program has approximately 35% of mentors and 88% of protégés that are women. A key to its success has been improving the supervisor's understanding of mentoring as it relates to employee productivity. There are many other programs within the Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) Program that affect women in science as government employees, including a special emphasis program called the Federal Women's Program, as well as annual evaluation for performance in Civil Rights, supervisory training, and flexible work schedules. Improving our mentorship of women in animal science will benefit animal agriculture. Behind successful women in animal science there has been encouragement from a network of mentors.     

Conformity to sex-typed norms, affect, and the self-concept

The self-concept plays an important role in conformity to sex-typed social norms. Normative beliefs that men are powerful, dominant, and self-assertive and that women are caring, intimate with others, and emotionally expressive represent possible standards for whom people ought to be and whom they ideally would like to be. In the present research, to the extent that sex role norms were personally relevant for participants, norm-congruent experiences (i.e., those involving dominance for men and communion for women) yielded positive feelings and brought their actual self-concepts closer to the standards represented by ought and ideal selves.     

An appraisal of the relationship between women and psychotherapy: 80 years after the case of Dora.

Reviews concerns that have turned women away from psychotherapy, specifically sex bias and inadequate responses to the special problems of women. The pervasive unhappiness of many women has become a subject for psychotherapy, yet clinical theories of development have been inadequate in terms of women's experience. Freud's theories and those of his followers are based on men's development and on the anatomical differences between the sexes, with women designated as biologically inferior. Freud's case of Dora demonstrates his prejudicial theory. Little attention has been given to the fact that women experience dramatic and unique bodily changes in the course of their lives. Such theories and biases have led to sex-role bias and sex-role stereotyping by therapists. Studies have shown that women may be treated by therapists with more potent medications and for a longer period than men with the same ailment; women are also more likely to be treated as sex objects. Psychological problems that have a higher prevalence in women than men have not received appropriate attention; these include problems of marital and family relations, reproductive problems, physical and sexual abuse, depression, and problems associated with eating. Pathological labels have often been assigned to women for conditions that may be caused by environmental stress or that result from prolonged powerlessness or women's socialization. (84 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Women's health status and gender inequality in China

This paper examines the health status of women in China by reviewing levels and trends of female mortality at several phases of a woman's life cycle focusing on infancy girlhood, childbearing and old age. The mortality rates of Chinese women and men are compared for the period 1950-1990 as are comparisons with women in selected countries. The cause-specific death rate, expressed as a percentage of all deaths, and the burden of disease, measured in terms of the disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), are used to reflect the changing patterns of female diseases and causes of deaths. Significant improvement in the health status of Chinese women since 1950 is widely acknowledged as a major achievement for a developing country with the largest population in the world, but the differentials in women's health by region and urban/rural areas are considerable. The Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI) indicates that the overall level of physical well-being of Chinese women has increased in recent decades, but disparity in health between men and women still exists. The Gender-Related Development Index (GDI) further reveals that China has achieved significant progress in women's health during the past four decades, but far less has been achieved with respect to gender equality overall. The final sections of the paper focus on the discussion of some health problems faced by the female population during the process of economic reform since the 1980 s. In order to promote gender equality between women and men, concerns on women's health care needs are highlighted.     

Acute interactions of buprenorphine with intravenous cocaine and morphine: an investigational new drug phase I safety evaluation

Globally, men have not shared equally with women the responsibility for fertility regulation. While family planning efforts have been directed almost exclusively toward women, the lack of male involvement may also reflect the limited options available to men. Current methods for men are either coitus-dependent, such as the condom or withdrawal, or permanent, such as vasectomy. The 20-year history of social science research on male contraceptive methods is examined here in terms of the human and method factors related to the acceptability of hypothetical methods and the prevalence of use of existing methods. New male methods, particularly if reversible, may alter men's willingness to accept or share responsibility for the control of fertility. Research opportunities in the areas of gender, decision-making, communication, health education, and service delivery will be enhanced when methods for women and men are comparable.     

Toward an understanding of depression from the standpoint of women: Exploring contributions of qualitative research approaches.

Provides an introduction to the special issue of Canadian Psychology on depression in women. "Depression" is recognized as one of the more common mental health problems and also one that is particularly prevalent among women. One major limitation of mainstream theorizing is the taken-for-granted view of depression as a form of internal "psychopathology," a phenomenon which can be understood without regard to sociocultural context. An approach that avoids this limitation is one in which contextual aspects of women's lives are included from the outset by following a research process that begins with the lived experiences of women. A focus on women's experiences also leads to consideration of the contributions of qualitative approaches to research on depression which are compatible with both a feminist standpoint perspective and social constructionist epistemologies. The articles in this special issue are intended to contribute to the development of new knowledge about depression in women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vers une compréhension de la dépression dans la perspective des femmes: Exploration de la contribution des approches de la recherche qualitative.

Provides an introduction to the special issue of Canadian Psychology on depression in women. "Depression" is recognized as one of the more common mental health problems and also one that is particularly prevalent among women. One major limitation of mainstream theorizing is the taken-for-granted view of depression as a form of internal "psychopathology," a phenomenon which can be understood without regard to sociocultural context. An approach that avoids this limitation is one in which contextual aspects of women's lives are included from the outset by following a research process that begins with the lived experiences of women. A focus on women's experiences also leads to consideration of the contributions of qualitative approaches to research on depression which are compatible with both a feminist standpoint perspective and social constructionist epistemologies. The articles in this special issue are intended to contribute to the development of new knowledge about depression in women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of facial masking and sex on older adults’ impressions of individuals with Parkinson’s disease.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) involves facial masking, which may impair social interaction. Older adult observers who viewed segments of videotaped interviews of individuals with PD expressed less interest in relationships with women with higher masking and judged them as less supportive. Masking did not affect ratings of men in these domains, possibly because higher masking violates gender norms for expressivity in women but not in men. Observers formed less accurate ratings of the social supportiveness and social strain of women than men, and higher masking decreased accuracy for ratings of strain. Results suggest that some of the problems with social relationships in PD may be due to inaccurate impressions and reduced desire to interact with individuals with higher masking, especially women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Environment, vulnerability, and gender in Andean ethnomedicine

In Cuyo Cuyo, in the southern Peruvian highlands, ethnomedicine is rife with images of human vulnerability to a hostile and unpredictable environment. This is represented in the ethnomedical system by a focus on wayras, air- or wind-borne illnesses that enter through vulnerable body openings such as the head, orifices, lower back, and feet. Women are viewed to be more vulnerable, or débil, than men to illness because they have an extra orifice, the vagina, they lose copious amounts of blood, which is thought to be irreplaceable, during childbirth. and because they suffer more negative emotions, which are thought to attract wayras and other illnesses to the body. The relationship of ethnomedical beliefs to the Andean physical and political economic environment is explored within the context of social and economic change. Negative beliefs about women's bodies have negative effects on women's roles and position vis-à-vis men in present day Cuyo Cuyo. Ethnomedical beliefs reflect and reinforce gender inequalities in present day Peru and are part of a cultural ideology that in general devalues women. This case study demonstrates that power is a key dimension in the cultural construction of medical knowledge. whether in non-Western or Western societies.     

Review of Women’s sexuality across the life span: Challenging myths, creating meanings.

Reviews the book, Women’s sexuality across the life span: Challenging myths, creating meanings by Judith C. Daniluk (see record 1998-06080-000). This book about women's sexualities thoroughly integrates biological, psychological, and social perspectives at each point of the life span. The book includes major sections on childhood and adolescence, young adulthood, and the middle and later years. In each section the author explains in clear and accessible language what we know about the biological changes occurring in women's bodies, media portrayals of women's bodies and women's sexualities, research concerning the psychological consequences (mostly negative) of these messages, and an exploration of the ways in which therapists and counselors can help women clients create more positive and varied visions of their sexualities. The reviewer points out several flaws in the text and makes suggestions for improvement, but in the end agrees with the author's thesis that we have not yet even begun to imagine the range of women's sexual experiences as they currently exist, much less as they might exist in a society that valued a diversity of women and their sexualities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender, socioeconomic status and family status as determinants of food behaviour

This study examines social structural and family status factors as determinants of food behaviour. The data were derived from the FINMONICA Risk Factor Survey, collected in Finland in spring 1992. A multidimensional framework of the determinants of food behaviour was used, including social structural position, family status and gender. The associations between the determinants of food behaviour were estimated by multivariate logistic regression models, adjusted for age and regional differences. Food behaviour was measured by an index including six food items which were chosen based on Finnish dietary guidelines. In general, women's food behaviour was more in accordance with the dietary guidelines than that of men. The pattern of association between educational level and food behaviour was similar for both genders, but slightly stronger for men than women. Employment status was associated only with women's food behaviour, but the tendency was the same for men. Marital status was associated with men's as well as women's food behaviour. The food behaviour of married men and women was more in line with the dietary guidelines than the food behaviour of those who had been previously married. Parental status, however, was only associated with women's food behaviour, that is, the food behaviour of women with young children was more closely in line with the dietary guidelines than that of the rest of the women.     

Psychology and women’s studies: Epistemological dilemma or opportunity?

Women used to be relegated to the periphery in psychology: most of us were not really heard as primary members of our discipline. Moreover, fundamental concepts and methods were developed by men about men, and applied to women only as an afterthought and without due process. Recently, more women are speaking straightforwardly from their experiences and are beginning to be heard with increasing respect, though change is slow. Concurrently, Women's Studies is coming to its own as an academic discipline. Now it is paradoxical that as women psychologists, many of us find ourselves with one foot in each of two different worlds—one in psychology and the other in women's studies. As I reflect on what it must have been like for women many years ago in psychology and on how that experience has (and has not) changed in my generation, I am coming to appreciate the intellectual challenge which I face. In this essay I discuss several epistemological and methodological issues in Women's Studies which are relevant to psychology in an attempt to bring both of my feet closer together. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships between women and their parents: Implications for midlife well-being.

The rapid changes in women's roles during the 1970s gave the graduates of the Radcliffe College class of 1964 opportunities for life experiences markedly different from those of either their mothers or their fathers. This longitudinal study of 89 Radcliffe graduates examined the ways in which women in midlife find continuity with their parents and the implications of experiences of continuity for women's relationships with parents and for women's self-esteem and well-being. Support was found for a model linking women's educational and occupational similarity to their parents to later perceptions of parental influence, perceived parental influence to parent–daughter relationship quality, and parent–daughter relationship quality to self-esteem and subsequent well-being. The quality of women's relationships with their fathers did not predict subsequent well-being, perhaps because of fathers' decreased involvement in their adult daughters' lives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conceptualizing sexual health in cancer care

This qualitative study was designed to describe women's experiences with changes in sexual function related to physical comfort, sexual satisfaction, and feelings of intimacy post-treatment for gynecological cancer. The 17 women who participated in this study described sexuality as a much broader construct. Contrary to existing literature, sexual functioning was found to be one aspect that contributed to the view of the self as a sexual being, but the women's perceptions were not limited to this single dimension. The identification of multidimensional components to be considered in developing a conceptual model to describe sexual health are presented. This study indicates that sexuality should be viewed as a health issue that has an impact on quality of life.     

Sex and susceptibility as moderator variables in the relationship of creativity and hypnotic susceptibility.

Studied 36 male and 36 female undergraduates, rectangularly distributed across the entire range of the harvard group scale of hypnotic susceptibility. Ss were given a battery of tests including the holtzman inkblot test, free association test, consequences test, remote associate test, and revised art preference test. Relationships among hypnotic susceptibility, creativity, and spontaneous trance-like experiences were found for women but not for men. Moreover, only women showed a dramatic increase in these correlations as a function of susceptibility level. Thus, both sex and susceptibility seem to operate as moderator variables in the correlates of hypnotic susceptibility. Women were significantly superior on a susceptibility scale that included more items requiring profound distortions in perception. It is suggested that the sex differences may reflect basic differences in the organization of imagination. It is hypothesized that women's imagination is more stimulus incited, whereas men's imagination is more impulse incited. (33 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Women's injuries in collegiate sports. A preliminary comparative overview of three seasons

The purpose of this article was to provide a preliminary overview of the injury experiences among collegiate women athletes which were reported to the National Athletic Injury/Illness Reporting System (NAIRS) during its first 3 operational years (1975 to 1978). More dissimilarities in injury patterns were observed between women's sports than between comparable men and women's sports. The results thereby are interpreted that injuries to women athletes are essentially sport-related, not sex-related. Further investigative reports on women athletic injuries should be delimited to respective sports and over a period of time. Attention should be given to the patterns of injury within a sport, including shifts in patterns, so that practicable preventive measures can be perceived, implemented, and subsequently evaluated.     

Women's experiences of treatment of depression: Medicalization or empowerment?

An interview study was conducted in which women's experiences of diagnosis and treatment for depression were explored. Nine women (aged 19–66 yrs) who had been diagnosed by a physician participated in the study. Topics explored in the interview included how women came to be diagnosed as depressed, how treatment was experienced, how they understood the causes of their depression, and how being diagnosed had affected their view of themselves and their futures. Analysis involved a thematic approach guided by the topics addressed in the interview. The women's accounts also were analyzed with respect to the themes of medicalization and empowerment. All of the participants gave medicalized accounts of their depressive experiences, which were characterized by biomedical explanations and identification of anti-depressant drugs as beneficial in alleviating their distress. Based on this analysis of the women's accounts, it is concluded that a medicalized understanding and treatment of women's depressive experiences cannot readily co-exist with personal empowerment. Suggestions are made for developing strategies for treatment of women's depressive experiences that offer the benefits of medicalization without precluding the possibility of personal empowerment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Choosing a norm group for counseling: Legislation, regulation, and nontraditional careers.

In the past 30 years, the number of women employed in the U.S. economy has grown dramatically. Unfortunately, occupational segregation by gender has continued, and women's earnings are still much smaller on the average than are men's earnings. This article examines the role of vocational counseling in the career exploration process of young people. It is argued that providing information to young people about their abilities and interests via same-sex and opposite-sex norms conveys more information than the use of norms based on an overall group and facilitates exploration of nontraditional careers. The use of separate-gender norms raises legal concerns; federal law and regulations related to the choice of a norm group for career counseling are reviewed. The experiences of one organization whose use of separate-gender norms was reviewed for compliance with federal statutes are summarized. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)