Evaluation of the effect of plant extracts and phenolic compounds on reduction of acrylamide in an asparagine/glucose model system by RP‐HPLC‐DAD

BACKGROUND: Acrylamide has been found in various foods. Many studies have been conducted to mitigate acrylamide formation during the Maillard reaction. In this study, the effects of 35 crude aqueous extracts from dietary plants (spices, fruits, tea, beans and herbs) and 11 phenolic compounds on the mitigation of acrylamide in an asparagine/glucose model system were investigated. A simple method using reversed‐phase high‐performance liquid chromatography with 100% water as mobile phase was developed for acrylamide quantification. RESULTS: Addition of plant extracts significantly influenced acrylamide formation. Extracts of mint, cumin seeds and star anise caused the greatest reductions, of 75%, 73% and 69%, respectively, but Huanggang Ku‐Jing‐Cha extract facilitated acrylamide formation with increases of 18%. Of the phenolic compounds, p‐coumaric acid caused the greatest reduction (53%), whereas hesperetin increased acrylamide content by 9%. CONCLUSION: This study provided a possible use of crude aqueous plant extracts to mitigate acrylamide formation in the Maillard reaction. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Mitigating effect of amaranth (Amarantus hypochondriacus) protein on acrylamide formation in foods

The effect of addition of amaranth flour and amaranth protein isolate to both a glucose/asparagine model system and real foods (cookies, fried tortilla chips, and baked tortilla chips) was studied to analyse the acrylamide mitigating potential of this underexploited plant with attractive nutraceutical properties. Addition of amaranth flour, with a relatively low protein content (16.45%), did not mitigate acrylamide in either the model system or the studied foods. On the contrary, addition of amaranth protein isolate decreased acrylamide content by 35–40% in the model system, 89% in cookies, 51% in fried tortilla chips, and 62% in baked tortilla chips. This acrylamide reduction was obtained without change in the colour or the texture of the cookies. On the contrary, colour remained unchanged in tortilla chips, but the addition of amaranth protein isolate increased the hardness (16–36%) of the produced tortillas. Although a much more detailed sensory evaluation of cookies and tortilla chips prepared using amaranth protein isolate is needed, the above results suggest that the use of amaranth protein may be an interesting way to both mitigate acrylamide formation and improve nutritional properties of foods.     

添加紫甘蓝粉、花椰菜粉、麦胚粉对曲奇中丙烯酰胺生成的影响

目的 探究添加紫甘蓝粉、花椰菜粉、麦胚粉对曲奇中丙烯酰胺生成的影响,为优化焙烤食品配方、控制丙烯酰胺生成提供基础。方法 参考AACC方法,分别以一定比例的植物粉替代等量面粉制作曲奇,以未添加植物粉曲奇为对照,采用HPLC-MS/MS法测定曲奇中丙烯酰胺的含量。结果 三种植物粉对丙烯酰胺生成的影响不同。在添加量为1%~10%时,添加紫甘蓝粉、花椰菜粉的曲奇中丙烯酰胺含量随添加量增加而增大。添加量为10%时,丙烯酰胺含量分别为对照的26.25、68.52倍,而添加麦胚粉曲奇则影响不显著。结论 添加紫甘蓝粉、花椰菜粉和麦胚粉对曲奇中丙烯酰胺的生成有不同影响。     

Acrylamide levels and dietary exposure from foods in the United States,an update based on 2011-2015 data

ABSTRACT

Acrylamide is a contaminant that can form in certain plant-based foods during high-temperature cooking. From 2011–2015, the Food and Drug Administration conducted extensive sampling and analyses of acrylamide in foods, as a follow-up to surveys from 2002–2006. We compared acrylamide occurrence data and exposure estimates based on 2011–2015 data with data and exposure estimates from 2002–2006. Acrylamide levels in selected food categories generally did not decrease significantly in 2011–2015 compared with 2002–2006. However, significant decreases in acrylamide concentrations were observed for potato chips and crackers, which may be related to the availability and use of mitigation techniques for reducing acrylamide in foods. Mean dietary intake for those 2 years and older based on 2011–2015 data was 0.36 µg/kg bw/day, comparable to the 0.44 µg/kg bw/day reported by FDA in 2006. French fries and potato products, breakfast cereal, cookies, potato chips, and crackers continue to be the greatest contributors to dietary intake of acrylamide. Infant snack foods were identified as an important contributor to acrylamide intake relative to infant jarred foods. The continued presence of acrylamide in food suggests that manufacturers and governments should continue to pursue efforts to reduce acrylamide in foods that are important contributors to acrylamide intake.     

Effect of Steam Baking on Acrylamide Formation and Browning Kinetics of Cookies

Abstract: Effects of baking method and temperature on surface browning and acrylamide concentration of cookies were investigated. Cookies were baked in natural and forced convection and steam‐assisted hybrid ovens at 165, 180, and 195 °C and at different times. For all oven types, the acrlyamide concentration and surface color of cookies increased with increasing baking temperature. Significant correlation was observed between acrylamide formation and browning index, BI, which was calculated from Hunter L, a, and b color values, and it showed that the BI may be considered as a reliable indicator of acrylamide concentration in cookies. Acrylamide formation and browning index in cookies were considered as the first‐order reaction kinetics and the reaction rate constants, k, were in the range of 0.023 to 0.077 (min^?1) and 0.019 to 0.063 (min^?1), respectively. The effect of baking temperature on surface color and acrylamide concentration followed the Arrhenius type of equation, with activation energies for acrylamide concentration as 6.87 to 27.84 kJ/mol; for BI value as 19.54 to 35.36 kJ/mol, for all oven types. Steam‐assisted baking resulted in lower acrylamide concentration at 165 °C baking temperature and lower surface color for all temperatures. Steam‐assisted baking is recommended as a healthy way of cooking providing the reduction of harmful compounds such as acrylamide for bakery goods, at a minimal level, while keeping the physical quality. Practical Application: The kinetics of acrylamide formation and browning of cookies will possibly allow definition of optimum baking temperatures and times at convectional and steam‐assisted baking ovens. The kinetic model can be used by developing baking programs that can automatically control especially a new home‐scale steam‐assisted hybrid oven producing healthy products, for the use of domestic consumers.     

Reducing Acrylamide in Fried Snack Products by Adding Amino Acids

ABSTRACT: The aims of this study were to develop commercial methods for reducing the acrylamide content in processed foods and apply them to commercial snacks. The formation of acrylamide in fried foods was found to depend on the composition of raw materials as well as the frying time and temperature. In potato chips, acrylamide was rapidly formed at over 160°C, with the amount proportional to the heating duration and temperature. Free amino acids were used to reduce acrylamide, with lysine, glycine, and cysteine having the greatest effects in the aqueous system. Lysine and glycine were effective at inhibiting the formation of acrylamide in wheat-flour snacks. In potato snacks, the addition of 0.5% glycine to pallets reduced acrylamide by more than 70%. Soaking potato slices in a 3% solution of either lysine or glycine reduced the formation of acrylamide by more than 80% in potato chips fried for 1.5 min at 185°C. These results indicate that the addition of certain amino acids by soaking the uncooked products in appropriate solutions is an effective way of reducing acrylamide in processed foods.     

A new approach to evaluate the risk arising from acrylamide formation in cookies during baking: Total risk calculation

From a food engineering point of view, a viable approach in evaluating the risk related to acrylamide formation in heated foods is still lacking. In this study, thermal process calculation procedure used to evaluate safe levels of microbial inactivation by means of time-temperature history of the product during processing was adapted to evaluate the risk associated with acrylamide formation in cookies during baking. The rate constants were determined in model cookies during baking at different temperatures. For a risk threshold value of 200 ppb of acrylamide, thermal formation times were calculated as 6.29, 0.20 and 0.03 min for 150, 200 and 250 °C, respectively. The F and z values were determined as 0.20 min and 30 °C, respectively, for acrylamide formation in cookies during baking. Calculated total risk values compared well with experimentally measured acrylamide concentrations of cookies baked under different conditions confirming the success of risk evaluation procedure.     

Pyrraline formation prevented by sodium chloride encapsulated by binary blends of different starches and gum Arabic in aqueous model systems and cookies

Pyrraline is a common advanced glycation end product that is closely associated with various chronic diseases and frequently found in commonly consumed foods. In this study, pyrraline formation prevented by NaCl encapsulated by binary blends of different starches and gum arabic was investigated. The results show that in aqueous model systems with encapsulated NaCl addition, the reduction in pyrraline varied from 5.4% to 26.7%, with simultaneous decreases in the 3-deoxyglucosone (3-DG) concentration, which varied from 13.1% to 41.4%. In cookies with encapsulated NaCl addition, decreases in pyrraline varied from 10.2% to 31.6% accompanied by simultaneous decreases in 3-DG, which varied from 14.2% to 39.4%. However, NaCl encapsulation had no impact on the browning extent in aqueous model systems and on the basic sensory indicators of the manufactured cookies, including colour and salty taste.     

Utilization of watermelon rind waste as a potential source of dietary fiber to improve health promoting properties and reduce glycemic index for cookie making

Watermelon rind powder (WRP) is a rich source of dietary fiber and bioactive compounds, hence it could be used in the development of functional foods such as cookies. Different replacement levels of wheat flour with either WRP or hi-maize starch (HMS) (10-30%) on the quality of the cookies made were studied. The dietary fiber content in the cookies increased with incorporation of increasing level of either WRP or HMS. Increasing the proportion of the WRP in the cookie making resulted in an increase in the total phenolic content, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity, and the ferric reducing antioxidant power. Using up to 20% of WRP and 30% of HMS in the cookie making promotes: increase in dietary fiber, decrease in predicted glycemic index to medium (for WRP) and low (for HMS) levels, and improving the antioxidant activity. These changes still produce an acceptable cookie.     

Validation of coffee by-products as novel food ingredients

This research aimed to validate coffee husk, parchment and silverskin as new health-promoting food ingredients. Characterization of the novel ingredients was carried out by Raman and infrared spectroscopy and analysis of total phenolic compounds, chlorogenic acid, caffeine and dietary fiber. Antioxidant properties of the novel ingredients were tested by ABTS and intracellular ROS formation in HepG2 cells. Pesticides, mycotoxins, acrylamide and acute toxicity experiments following OECD Test Guidelines 425 were performed to assess the food safety of extracts, solid residues and raw materials. Husk and silverskin are proposed as a source of two food ingredients: aqueous extracts enriched in phytochemicals and antioxidant dietary fiber while parchment is proposed as a natural source of antioxidant dietary fiber. No lesions were found in selected isolated vital organs from treated animals. Coffee by-products can be converted into safe food ingredients allowing a whole food waste recovery. Analyses of contaminants are essential for achieving this goal.     

原料特性对曲奇饼干品质和丙烯酰胺生成的影响

以面粉、油、糖为主要原料制作曲奇饼干,通过测量其水分含量、色度、质地、感官和丙烯酰胺含量,研究原料特性对曲奇饼干品质和丙烯酰胺生成的影响。实验表明:面粉中蛋白质的含量显著影响曲奇饼干的品质和丙烯酰胺的生成。与高筋粉和中筋粉相比,低筋粉粗蛋白含量仅为7.67%,其制作的曲奇饼干水分含量低,硬度小,柔软和酥松程度表现更好,品质最佳且丙烯酰胺生成量最低。普通黄油和发酵黄油制作的曲奇饼干酥脆,香味浓郁,品质优良,发酵黄油在焙烤过程脂肪氧化较为缓慢,生成的丙烯酰胺含量低为212μg/kg。红糖制作的曲奇饼干呈棕褐色,具有独特的香味,但丙烯酰胺含量高达828μg/kg。白砂糖、冰糖和绵白糖制作的曲奇饼干品质差异较小,其中白砂糖制作的曲奇饼干感官评价得分最高,丙烯酰胺含量最低为230μg/kg。综上,低筋面粉、发酵黄油和白砂糖制作的曲奇饼干品质较优,丙烯酰胺生成量较少。     

KINETICS OF ACRYLAMIDE FORMATION DURING TRADITIONAL AND VACUUM FRYING OF POTATO CHIPS

Acrylamide is considered a carcinogen in animals and a possible carcinogen in humans. It has been found in starch‐rich foods cooked at high temperatures. Vacuum frying (10 Torr) was investigated as a possible alternative to reduce acrylamide formation in potato chips. The cultivar Atlantic was used to determine the kinetics of acrylamide formation during traditional and vacuum frying at different temperatures. There was a 94% decrease in acrylamide content when potatoes were fried to the same final moisture content (1.5% ± 0.3% w.b.) under vacuum compared to those fried under atmospheric conditions. Acrylamide accumulation under vacuum frying was modeled using first‐order kinetics (during traditional frying, the logistic kinetic model was used). The behavior of the kinetics of acrylamide content in potato chips fried under the two processes was different mainly because of the different temperatures used. During traditional frying, higher temperatures are used (150 to 180C) and acrylamide after some time is produced but starts degrading, producing a constant level of acrylamide content at longer times. During vacuum frying (10 Torr), acrylamide increased exponentially (but at lower levels) for all frying times.     

Study on Mitigation of Acrylamide Formation in Cookies by 5 Antioxidants

Abstract: This study investigated the capacity of various antioxidants in reducing the formation of acrylamide during cookie processing. Five antioxidants, antioxidants of bamboo leaves (AOB), sodium erythorbate (SE), tea polyphenols (TP), vitamin E (VE), and tert‐butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ), were individually added into cookie formulas, and acrylamide content was determined by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC‐MS/MS). Cookie quality indexes, including flavor, brittleness, and water activity, were also evaluated. Results showed that the maximum inhibitory rate of acrylamide by AOB was achieved with addition of 0.2 g/kg AOB. Addition of AOB (0.2 g/kg), TP (0.1 g/kg), VE (0.1 g/kg), SE (0.1 g/kg), and TBHQ (0.2 g/kg) mitigated the formation of acrylamide by 63.9%, 43.0%, 71.2%, 49.6%, and 54.1%, respectively. Sensory evaluation showed that the color, texture, and flavor of cookies processed with either AOB (0.2 g/kg) or VE (0.1 g/kg) had no significant difference compared to control cookies (P > 0.05). The present study indicated that AOB (0.2 g/kg) and VE (0.1 g/kg) could not only effectively mitigate the formation of acrylamide, but also retain acceptable sensory attributes of cookies. This work shows the potential effectiveness of antioxidants in food processing to decrease acrylamide formation. Practical Application: There is an urgent need for reducing the level of acrylamide produced during food processing. This study found that certain antioxidants (antioxidant of bamboo leaves and vitamin E) could effectively inhibit acrylamide formation in cookie processing without affecting sensory properties. The results suggested that the application of antioxidants could be an effective method to decrease acrylamide formation.     

The effects of low‐temperature potato storage and washing and soaking pre‐treatments on the acrylamide content of French fries

BACKGROUND: Since the discovery in 2002 of acrylamide in a wide range of foods, there has been much work done to explore mechanisms of formation and to reduce acrylamide in commercial products. This study aimed to investigate simple measures which could be used to reduce acrylamide formation in home‐cooked French fries, using potatoes from three cultivars stored under controlled conditions and sampled at three time points. RESULTS: The reducing sugar content for all three cultivars increased during storage, which led to increased acrylamide levels in the French fries. Washing and soaking (30 min or 2 h) raw French fries before cooking led to reductions in acrylamide of up to 23, 38 and 48% respectively. Pre‐treated fries were lighter in colour after cooking than the corresponding controls. CONCLUSION: Pre‐treatments such as soaking or washing raw French fries in water reduce acrylamide and colour formation in the final product when cooking is stopped at a texture‐determined endpoint. Copyright © 2008 Society of Chemical Industry     

生物抗氧化剂抑制丙烯酰胺形成的研究进展

丙烯酰胺(acrylamide,AA)是富含碳水化合物的食物经高温加热后产生的对人类具有潜在致癌性的化合物。目前,基于生物抗氧化剂天然、高效、低毒等特点,采用生物抗氧化剂抑制食品中AA的形成已成为新的研究热点。本文主要综述了近年来生物抗氧化剂在加热过程中对美拉德模拟体系或食物中AA形成和消除的影响和机制。目前已经证实了多种生物抗氧化剂的可能作用机制,包括防止脂质氧化、捕获羰基化合物、消除自由基、减少3-氨基丙酰胺(3-APA)转化为AA、与AA前体或其本身反应等。本文同时提出了展望,希望将对于美拉德模拟系统的研究转化为对真正食品基质的研究,尽快将生物抗氧化剂有效、经济、广泛地应用于食品工业,以减少膳食AA对人类健康的危害。     

The phenolic composition and antioxidant capacity of soluble and bound extracts in selected dietary spices and medicinal herbs

Phenolic compounds, commonly found in plant‐based foods, exist in free or bound form. Despite much research on the soluble phenolics in spices and herbs, their bound phenolics have not been intensively investigated. In this study, six common dietary spices and medicinal herbs (Padang cassia, oregano, clove, Chinese cassia, Japanese knotweed and peel of pomegranate) were selected to evaluate and compare their phenolic composition and antioxidant capacity in soluble extracts (SEs) and bound extracts (BEs). Generally, the samples had high total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity, with lower levels in the BEs. From the HPLC results, (+)‐catechin, (?)‐epicatechin, eugenol, cinnamaldehyde and carvacrol were the major phenolic compounds in the SEs, and gallic acid, p‐coumaric acid and ellagic acid in the BEs. Phenolic compounds are likely the major contributors to the antioxidant capacity of these plant samples. Overall, these dietary spices and medicinal herbs can be excellent sources of natural antioxidant phenolics.     

Addition of antioxidant from bamboo leaves as an effective way to reduce the formation of acrylamide in fried chicken wings.

The efficiency of antioxidant from bamboo leaves on the reduction of acrylamide during thermal processing and optimization of levels of addition of antioxidant from bamboo leaves applied to fried chicken wings are reported. The authors optimized the method of the addition of antioxidant from bamboo leaves to fried chicken wings and the frying processing parameters, and also compared the relationship between the content of total flavonoids in three extracts (EBL(971), EBL(972) and antioxidant from bamboo leaves) and the extent of the reduction of acrylamide. The acrylamide levels were quantified by a validated liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry detection method and the sensory evaluation was performed in a double-blind manner. The results showed that nearly 57.8 and 59.0% of acrylamide in fried chicken wings were reduced when the antioxidant from bamboo leaves addition ratios were 0.1 and 0.5% (w/w), respectively. The maximum inhibitory rate was achieved when antioxidant from bamboo leaves was chosen as the additive with a total flavonoid content of 32% compared with other two extracts and antioxidant from bamboo leaves mixed with flour was selected as the method of addition. Sensory evaluation results showed that the odour and flavour of fried chicken wings with antioxidant from bamboo leaves treatments had no significant difference compared with normal food matrixes (p > 0.05) when the antioxidant from bamboo leaves addition ratio was <0.5% (w/w). Colour acceptability in the study of sensory evaluation was in good correspondence with colour formation of fried chicken wings in each test group. These results suggest that antioxidant from bamboo leaves could significantly reduce acrylamide formation in fried chicken wings and yet still retain the original flavour and odour of the fried products. This study could be regarded as a pioneer contribution to the reduction of acrylamide in various foods by natural antioxidants.     

Utilization of plant extracts to control the safety and quality of fried foods—A review

Frying is one of the most common methods of preparing foods. However, it may lead to the formation of potentially hazardous substances, such as acrylamide, heterocyclic amines, trans fatty acids, advanced glycation end products, hydroxymethyl furfural and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and adversely alter the desirable sensory attributes of foods, thereby reducing the safety and quality of fried foods. Currently, the formation of toxic substances is usually reduced by pretreatment of the raw materials, optimization of process parameters, and the use of coatings. However, many of these strategies are not highly effective at inhibiting the formation of these undesirable reaction products. Plant extracts can be used for this purpose because of their abundance, safety, and beneficial functional attributes. In this article, we focus on the potential of using plant extracts to inhibit the formation of hazardous substances, so as to improve the safety of fried food. In addition, we also summarized the effects of plant extracts, which inhibit the production of hazardous substances, on food sensory aspects (flavor, color, texture, and taste). Finally, we highlight areas where further research is required.     

Importance of a canteen lunch on the dietary intake of acrylamide

A food and drink intake survey was carried out among university students and staff members. Consumption data were collected on days when the participants took hot lunch in a university canteen. The dietary acrylamide exposure was calculated through a probabilistic approach and revealed a median intake of 0.40 microg/kg bw/day [90% confidence interval: 0.36-0.44], which is in accordance with previous exposure calculations. Biscuits (35.4%), French fries (29.9%), bread (23.5%), and chocolate (11.2%) were identified to be the main sources of dietary acrylamide. Foodstuffs consumed in between the three main meals of the day (so called snack type foods) contributed the most to the intake (42.2%). The exposure was lower in an intervention group which received free portions of fruit and vegetables, indicating that a nutritionally balanced diet may contribute to a decreased acrylamide intake. French fries had a significant impact on the acrylamide intake, due to the frequent consumption in the canteen. This demonstrates the important responsibility of caterers and canteen kitchens in the mitigation of acrylamide exposure through reduction of acrylamide in their prepared products, in particular in French fries.