Damage Monitoring of External Patch Repairs with Guided Ultrasonic Waves

A composite panel with a pre‐introduced hole was repaired with an external repair patch and tested under tension–tension fatigue. X‐ray radiography and microscopic analysis were employed to assess the developed damage which appeared first in the form of axial splitting at the hole and propagation until the final patch debonding. Piezoelectric transducers bonded on the top and bottom of the tested surface were utilised in‐phase and out‐of‐phase in order to excite separately the symmetric and antisymmetric fundamental Lamb wave modes. The estimation of each mode's arrival time was performed through the Akaike information criterion which indicated that only the excitation of the antisymmetric mode was successful due to the possible corruption of the symmetric mode with the shear horizontal mode. The study investigated the problem of inadequate training data set that resulted in a negative Mahalanobis squared distance after outlier analysis application. The study suggested a pseudoinverse approach for the inverse of the covariance matrix and a reduction in the selected feature through the principal component analysis and the isolation of the most representative principal components. Finally outlier analysis was applied, which successfully represented the condition of the structural integrity.     

Computational Characterization of Adhesive Layer Properties Using Guided Waves in Bonded Plates

This research develops a guided waves technique to nondestructively characterize the stiffness properties of bonded engineering components. This study first quantifies the influence of the relevant adhesive layer properties—Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio and bond thickness—on the dispersion curves of a two-layer bonded system, an aluminum plate with an adhesive tape layer bonded to its lower surface. Both a commercial finite element (FE) code (ABAQUS/Explicit) and the global matrix method (GMM) are used to determine the dispersion relationships of this bonded plate system in the form of frequency-wavenumber and slowness-frequency relations. These dispersion curves are then used to determine a set of adhesive tape parameter sensitive points, whose frequency coordinates represent the solution criteria for a proposed inversion procedure. This inversion is based on the GMM and assumes the three adhesive tape properties are unknown. The performance of this inversion procedure depends on the number of input time-domain signals; it is possible to solve the inverse problem for all three of the unknown adhesive tape properties if multiple input signals are known.     

An Intelligent Methodology for Railways Monitoring Using Ultrasonic Guided Waves

It is far from trivial to inspect railways for defections. In particular, for the foot area of the rail non destructive testing methods are known to be difficult to apply. In this paper, an ultrasonic guided wave method is considered along with classification methods for automated rail foot defect detection. In effect, given a set of gathered ultrasonic signals, multiple features are extracted from time-, frequency- and time–frequency domains. Next, a robust feature selection method is performed, to collect a small set of complementary features. The classification task is accomplished by means of a kernel-based support vector machine. To demonstrate the performance capabilities of our approach, an extensive experimental setup is designed under representative environmental and operational conditions. The sensitivity and the resolution of the proposed defect detection system are reported. A study on the influence of rail fastening on the proposed method is also reported where robust defect detection rates, greater than 93 %, are achieved assuming that a compact feature subset is considered. However, it is evident in experiments that even in the case of large defects, changes in the environmental conditions (temperature and humidity) increase the interpretation of the acquired signals, thus making the detection task more difficult.     

基于超声导波的列车转向架结构损伤定位成像研究

转向架构架为列车重要部件,其健康状况直接关系到列车安全运行,而基于超声导波的无损检测技术能够用于结构健康监测。采用导波反演法获取构架材料的体波波速,结合Lamb波频散方程得到构架的Lamb波频散曲线,进而选择激励信号。载荷和构架边界都会使响应导波信号特征变得复杂,使得损伤定位误差增加。为减少时域信号误差的影响,采用完好结构与检测结构的激励信号与相应导波能量谱相关系数进行分析。通过此系数获取检测结构的损伤指数,经权函数对各导波传播路径加权,从而得到损伤概率密度大小,进行损伤定位诊断成像。在构架中分别沿焊接方向以及承载剪切方向引入切槽损伤进行实验测试。结果表明,该方法能够较准确地实现损伤定位。     

Monitoring Early Age Properties of Cementitious Material Using Ultrasonic Guided Waves in Embedded Rebar

The evaluation of early age properties of concrete is critical for ensuring construction quality. This paper presents a sensing method to use ultrasonic guided waves in a rebar for monitoring the early age properties of cementitious material. An EMAT sensor was used to excite the longitudinal mode L(0,1) wave in a rebar embedded in cement/mortar, and an ultrasonic transducer was used for receiving the echo signals. Guided wave dispersion curves were developed to select appropriate frequency range. The leakage attenuations of the L(0,1) mode wave from the rebar to the surrounding cement materials were continuously monitored for the first 10 h. The evolution of the shear wave velocity was also monitored simultaneously. The leakage attenuation from experimental measurements was compared with the theory-predicted attenuation in both time and frequency domains, and showed good agreement. Experiments were performed on three cement paste samples and three mortar samples. The results indicated that attenuation is nearly linearly related to the shear wave velocity, and shear wave velocity is linearly related to the penetration resistance (ASTM C403) in logarithmic scale. These results suggest that mechanical properties and hardening process of cement materials can be monitored by using the ultrasonic guided waves in a rebar.     

流体管道超声导波无损检测

研究工程中流体管道的结构损伤识别技术具有现实的意义。以实现管道损伤定位为目的,探讨超声导波检测技术在流体管道的结构损伤识别中的可行性以及其识别精度。选择材料为20#碳钢的圆管为研究对象,根据频散方程利用数值法求解其各个模态频散曲线。以管中导波的传播原理为基础,从管中导波的模式、频散特征、避开截止频率、传播速度等方面因素选择激励信号,通过Abaqus有限元仿真分析导波在流体管道中的传播机理,利用概率密度函数法实现流体管道损伤定位。最后通过在管道上引入切槽损伤和孔损伤进行实验,对定位方法进行验证,实验结果与仿真分析基本吻合,证明了该方法的工程实用价值。     

基于振动模态分析的钢轨中超声导波传播特性数值计算方法

针对钢轨等复杂异型波导结构中超声导波频散特性难于求解的问题,本文通过振动模态分析提取出钢轨中超声导波传播特性。基于振动特征频率和波动解互相转化的原理,将振动模态分析获得的特征频率解,转换成波动解,进而提取出钢轨的频散特性。同时,还可以由结构振动分析中获得的变形信息,计算出超声导波的波结构。通过对计算出的钢轨中低阶超声导波模态频散特性和波结构分析,选择出适合钢轨无损检测的超声导波模态类型和频率范围,为后续专用超声导波传感器设计和检测实验提供理论支持。     

Long Range Detection of Defects in Composite Plates Using Lamb Waves Generated and Detected by Ultrasonic Phased Array Probes

This article presents a technique for the generation and detection of Lamb waves guided along large plate-like structures made from various types of materials (metal, polymer, fibre-reinforced composite, etc.). A multi-element matrix ultrasonic probe is driven using the well-known phased array principle, for launching and detecting pure Lamb modes in/from specific directions along the plate, which are arbitrary for isotropic materials and limited to specific directions for anisotropic materials, e.g. principal directions or directions for which both phase and group velocities are collinear. The probe is gel-coupled to the tested specimen and allows quick inspection of large area from its fixed position, even of zones with limited access. The technique, which takes into account the frequency dispersive effects, is different than SHM-like (Structural Health Monitoring) inspection, since all transmitting or receiving elements are grouped together in a localized area defined by the active surface of the probe, and not permanently attached to the tested structure. The use of a multi-element probe, for long range Lamb waves-based inspection, is also distinctive from that usually performed, which consists of very local inspection of a material by steering the ultrasonic beam below and nearby the probe. A prototype is presented, as well as measurements of its performances in terms of modal selectivity and directivity. Finally the detection and localisation of a through-thickness hole in a large aluminium plate, of a delamination-like defect in a carbon epoxy composite plate and of an impact damage on a stiffened composite curved plate are shown.     

Nondestructive Evaluation of Corrosion in Varying Environments Using Guided Waves

This work reports nondestructive evaluation of reinforcing bars that are corroding in the presence and absence of chlorides utilizing ultrasonic guided waves. The effect of rates of corrosion and its progression in the two environments on the ultrasonic signals is discussed. Surface and core seeking guided wave modes were used to monitor beams undergoing accelerated impressed current corrosion. Effective combination of guided wave modes could relate to the differences in corrosion mechanisms and rates in the two environments. Calibration of the ultrasonic data with the physical condition of the bar in the two environments has been attempted. It is done by conducting destructive tests of mass loss, tensile strength, and pull out strength at different stages of corrosion.     

Detection of Axial Cracks in Pipes Using Focused Guided Waves

The implementation of synthetic guided wave focusing to locate axially aligned defects in pipes has been investigated. Results from both finite element computer models and experiments on real pipes are presented and the data show good agreement. Focusing is necessary to improve the reflection coefficient from axially aligned defects, as the signals are very weak. The Common Source Method (CSM) of synthetic focusing has been applied which makes it possible to apply focusing via post processing to previously collected data. The dependence of reflection coefficient on crack length was measured for both through thickness and part depth axially aligned defects, at a range of frequencies, using the torsional guided wave family. The results show that the reflection coefficient is approximately doubled when focusing is employed, compared to the sensitivity for unfocused fundamental torsional waves. However the sensitivity is still very low, so in practise this approach could only be used to find severe defects.     

基于多个控制力作用下结构动力特性的损伤定位

用状态反馈控制的方法有目的地对结构进行极点配置，得到所需的受控结构的特征频率和特征振型，并利用这些数据，运用信息融合技术对由不同识别方法得到的损伤定位结果进行融合。本文还讨论了反馈控制力个数和位置对损伤定位结果的影响。数值仿真结果表明，使用受控结构的动力特性数据有可能提高损伤识别指标对损伤的敏感度，反馈控制力的个数和位置对损伤识别结果有影响，使用信息融合技术将采用不同损伤识别方法得到的识别结果进行融合，能进一步提高损伤定位的准确性。     

Estimation of Thermal Contact Resistance Using Ultrasonic Waves

In this paper, numerical simulations of both the three-dimensional heat conduction and two-dimensional elastic wave propagation at the interface of contact solids have been carried out. Numerical results of heat conduction simulations show that both the true contact area and thermal contact conductance increase linearly with an increase in the contact pressure. Numerical results of the ultrasonic wave propagation show that the intensity of a transmitted wave is very weak but depends clearly on the contact pressure. On the other hand, the intensity of reflected wave amounts to more than 99% of the standard reflected wave that results from the case of one cylindrical specimen without contact. However, the intensity of the modified reflected wave defined by the difference between the reflected wave and standard reflected wave shows the same tendency as that of the transmitted wave. The intensities of both transmitted and modified reflected waves could be expressed by the same power function of the contact pressure. By comparing the results of heat conduction with those of ultrasonic propagation calculations, a power functional correlation between the thermal contact conductance and transmitted or modified reflected intensity has been obtained. Using this correlation, it will be possible to estimate the thermal contact conductance between two solids through measuring the intensity of either reflected or transmitted ultrasonic waves.Paper presented at the Seventh Asian Thermophysical Properties Conference, August 23–28, 2004, Hefei and Huangshan, Anhui, P. R. China.     

Research on Damage Localization of Plate-like Structure Using Mode Acoustic Emission and Matching Pursuit

Based on mode acoustic emission theory,the paper analyses the acoustic emission analog signal of thin steel plate using matching pursuit,then obtains the characteristics interpretation of the different frequency signal energy concentration degree; Combined with four-point arc positioning method,the papers researches the damage localization of the plate-like structure. Simulation experiment shows that this method can accurately detect and locate the damage. This can provide data support for further imaging research based on time reverse theory.     

Propagation of Ultrasonic Lamb Waves in Aluminium Adhesively Bonded LAP Joints and in Single Plates

The analysis of the propagation of Lamb waves in multi- and single-layer systems is presented in this work. The study of this propagation problem is developed from matrix formulations, which describe elastic waves in layered media. The behavior of the different modes that propagate in the overlapped region is characterized. It is found that their relative amplitudes can be estimated based on the properties of the incident wave mode. It was verified that the excitation of these modes is ruled by the degree in which the shapes of both modes match each other.

Other result of this method refers to the evaluation of the attenuation of both longitudinal and transversal waves in plates, which is usually difficult, especially in thin plates by using the conventional pulse-echo technique. By using the immersion pitch and catch setup, the total attenuation, the sum of the losses due to the leaking in the fluid and to the material damping can easily be obtained through two measurements at different distances. The leaking losses are calculated by the bulk properties of both the fluid and the plate, and, consequently, the attenuation of the longitudinal and the transversal waves (material damping).     

利用模态参数进行弹性薄板的损伤识别

以一四边简支矩形弹性薄板为研究对象，通过数值计算得到板损伤前后的多阶模态，进而利用板损伤前后的位移振型比及柔度差来进行板的损伤识别研究。结果表明一阶振型比及柔度差均可用于结构损伤的检测与定位，并能大致判断损伤的程度。其中又以一阶位移振型比的精度为优。     

Temperature Independent Damage Detection in Plates Using Redundant Signal Measurements

This paper describes a method to detect notch like damages in plates using piezoelectric transducers. The method does not use prior baseline data for damage detection. A single pair of piezoelectric wafer transducers made of Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) is attached back to back on the opposite sides of a plate and are used for simultaneous actuation and sensing. A notch, which is a sudden change in thickness of the plate, leads to mode conversion of Lamb waves. The mode converted wave component in the measured signal is then separated from the other Lamb wave mode components using polarization characteristics of the piezoelectric wafer transducers. The damage index is a function of the amplitude of this mode converted component of the signal. In real world situations, the damage index will not be exactly zero due to inaccuracy in transducer collocation and non-uniformity in their bonding conditions. Therefore, a (non-zero) threshold for the damage index needs to be established to avoid false alarms. True to the spirit of baseline-free damage detection, this threshold is computed from the signals acquired only from the current state of the structure. This is achieved by using redundancy in signal measurements. Since the method detects damages without having to rely on baseline data, environmental variations like temperature change do not affect its performance. Results from numerical simulations as well as experiments on aluminum specimens are provided to demonstrate the effectiveness of the method described above.     

用概率社会网络进行结构损伤位置识别

在不计测量误差情况下,神经网络能够成功地识别损伤位置及其程度,但在测量噪声影响下,神经网络的损伤识别效果则比较差,考虑到基于多变量模式分类的概率神经网络具有处理受噪声污染的测试数据的能力,本文将可能的损伤位置作为模式类,利用概率神经网络的分类能力来识别结构的损,地对两个算例,一个六层框架和一个两层框架进行数值模拟分析,并将概率神经网络与BP网络进行了比较,结果表明,概率神经网络具有更好的识别效果,是一种很有潜力的结构损伤位置识别方法。     

Guided Ultrasonic Wave Imaging for Immersed Plates Based on Wavelet Transform and Probabilistic Analysis

We propose a nondestructive evaluation method for immersed structures based on the propagation of ultrasonic waves induced by means of laser pulses and detected with an array of immersion transducers. In the study presented in this article, a laser operating at 532 nm is employed to excite leaky guided waves on an aluminum plate immersed in water. An array of immersion transducers is used to record the waves radiating from the laser-illuminated point. The detected signals are processed with an imaging algorithm based on continuous wavelet transform and probabilistic analysis to localize the presence of artificial defects machined in the plate. With respect to the existing imaging methods for plates, the proposed algorithm is pseudo baseline free, because it does not require data recorded from a pristine plate, but it requires that only a portion of the plate is free from defects. We find that the proposed algorithm enables the detection of surface cracks. Advantages and limitations of the algorithm for the nondestructive evaluation of underwater structures are discussed.     

Nondestructive Characterization of Planar Defects Using Laser-Generated Ultrasonic Shear Waves

This paper introduces a laser scanning technique to characterize internal planar defects in a specimen with parallel boundaries. Based on the principles of laser-based ultrasonic shear waves and shadowing, a procedure to determine flaw location, size, and orientation is described. The key feature of this scheme is the use of an optimum wave propagation angle where the maximum shear wave propagates. The feasibility of the approach is evidenced by testing specimens with various controlled and natural internal flaws. The experimental results are promising, in that the flaw characteristics can be determined with good accuracy. It is found that the scheme is especially useful for characterizing transverse-type flaws. The limitations of the technique are also addressed.     

Nondestructive Characterization of Planar Defects Using Laser-Generated Ultrasonic Shear Waves

Abstract

This paper introduces a laser scanning technique to characterize internal planar defects in a specimen with parallel boundaries. Based on the principles of laser-based ultrasonic shear waves and shadowing, a procedure to determine flaw location, size, and orientation is described. The key feature of this scheme is the use of an optimum wave propagation angle where the maximum shear wave propagates. The feasibility of the approach is evidenced by testing specimens with various controlled and natural internal flaws. The experimental results are promising, in that the flaw characteristics can be determined with good accuracy. It is found that the scheme is especially useful for characterizing transverse-type flaws. The limitations of the technique are also addressed.