人股骨皮质骨轴面微动摩擦磨损特性研究

采用高精密微动试验台外加体液恒温循环装置,在一定法向载荷和不同位移幅值条件下,研究了天然活性人股骨皮质骨对纯钛的微动摩擦磨损行为。试验结果显示：随位移幅值的增加,股骨皮质骨的微动运行状态从部分滑移向完全滑移状态转变,详细讨论了不同位移幅值下摩擦因数随循环次数的演变规律。微观观察表明：接触表面处于部分滑移状态时损伤轻微,而在完全滑移状态下磨损较严重。人股骨皮质骨的磨损机理主要表现为磨粒磨损和微骨折导致的剥层剥落。微动磨痕的深度随位移幅值的增加而增加,而且磨痕深度与摩擦因数有很好的对应关系。研究认为控制植入体/骨界面的微动幅度有利于提高皮质骨抗微动损伤的能力。     

On the mechanisms of various fretting wear modes

According to relative motion directions for a ball-on-flat contact, there are four fundamental fretting wear modes, e.g., tangential, radial, torsional and rotational modes. In this paper, the mechanisms of these four fundamental fretting wear modes, particularly for the later three modes, have been reviewed from results obtained by the authors in combination with results from literature. Some general features have been reported. Differences both in running and degradation behavior have been discussed in detail. Results showed that some similar laws for three fretting regimes (partial slip regime, mixed regime and slip regime), fretting maps (running condition fretting map and material response fretting map), wear and cracking mechanisms obtained from the classic mode (i.e. tangential fretting) were also identified and useful to characterize the other modes. Nevertheless, the occurrence of relative slip for the radial fretting, the formation of mixed regime for the torsional fretting, the evolution of surface morphology for the rotational fretting were quite different compared to that of the classical fretting mode.     

Slip Index: A New Unified Approach to Fretting

A new similarity criterion, termed slip index, is introduced. This slip index replaces conventional fretting maps in determining the different fretting regimes as well as the transition from fretting to reciprocal sliding. The slip index is derived from a dimensional analysis of the parameters that govern sliding conditions and provides a unified approach to fretting that is valid for any particular system. The validity of this approach is verified by comparison of fretting data from different test rigs and on different scales. A more accurate definition of fretting is offered based on the present approach.     

Development of a test device for the evaluation of fretting in point contact

Fretting wear and fatigue may occur between any two contacting surfaces, wherever short‐amplitude reciprocating sliding is present for a large number of cycles. A test device has been developed for the evaluation of fretting fatigue and wear in partial and gross slip conditions. Three similar sphere‐on‐plane contacts run at the same time. Normal force, tangential force or displacement amplitude and constant bulk stress can be controlled and measured separately. Reciprocating tangential displacement is produced with rotational motion, the amplitude and frequency of which can be adjusted and controlled accurately by an electric shaker. The number of load cycles for crack initiation and growth is determined with strain‐gauge measurements near the fretting point of contact. The contact surfaces are measured with 3D optical profilometer before fretting measurements to determine actual contact geometry. The measurements were done with quenched and tempered steel. The initial results indicate that cracks are mostly formed in partial slip conditions, whereas fretting wear is more heavily involved in gross slip conditions. The initiation of a crack occurs near the edge of the contact in the slip direction, where the calculated cracking risk has its maximum value in partial slip conditions. The number of cracks increases as the displacement amplitude, i.e. friction force, increases in partial slip conditions. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Analysis of the Fretting Conditions in a Contact Between an Epoxy Thermoset and a Glass Counterface

The fretting conditions in a contact between an epoxy thermoset and a glass counterface have been investigated using a specific device which allows in situ observation of the contact area. The critical displacement for transition from partial slip to gross slip conditions was investigated by the in situ detection of the micro-displacements and by the analysis of the fretting loops. Experimental results were in good relation with the theoretical predictions derived from Mindlin's approach of incipient sliding. Depending on the loading conditions, a progressive change from gross slip to partial slip conditions was found to occur during the early stages of the fretting loading, i.e., before the appearance of any macroscopic damage such as cracking or particle detachment. These fretting conditions were synthesized in a fretting map giving the boundary between various fretting regimes as a function of the normal load, the imposed displacement and the number of cycles.     

Oil-Lubricated Fretting Behaviors of 304 Stainless Steels under Different Fretting Strokes and Normal Loads

The influence of oil lubrication on the fretting wear behaviors of 304 stainless steel flat specimens under different fretting strokes and normal loads has been investigated. The results proved that fretting regimes and fretting wear behaviors of 304 stainless steels were closely related to the fretting conditions. In general, the increase in normal load could increase wear damage during sliding wear. However, according to the results, a significant reduction in wear volume and increase in friction coefficient was observed when the normal load was increased to critical values of 40 and 50 N at a fretting stroke of 50 μm due to the transformation of the fretting regime from a gross slip regime to partial slip regime. Only when the fretting stroke further increased to a higher value of 70 μm at 50 N, fretting could enter the gross slip regime. There was low wear volume and a high friction coefficient when fretting was in the partial slip regime, because oil penetration was poor. The wear mechanisms were fatigue damage and plastic deformation. There was high wear volume and low friction coefficient when fretting was in the gross slip regime, because the oil could penetrate into the contact surfaces. Unlike the wear mechanisms in the partial slip regime, fretting damage of 304 stainless steels was mainly caused by abrasive wear in the gross slip regime.     

Study on rotational fretting wear of 7075 aluminum alloy

Rotational fretting wear tests in a ball-on-flat configuration have been successfully realized on a special rotational fretting rig developed from an ultra-low-speed reciprocating rotational driver. The rotational fretting behavior of 7075 aluminum alloy against 52 100 steel was studied under different angular displacement amplitudes and normal loads. The results showed that both F_t?θ and F_t/F_n curves can be used to characterize the rotational fretting running behavior, which exhibited different curve shapes and variation trends in different fretting running regimes. The rotational fretting behavior of 7075 aluminum alloy was strongly dependent on the angular displacement amplitude, normal load and number of cycles. The wear of 7075 aluminum alloy was characterized by slight attrition in the partial slip regime, while a combination of delamination, abrasive and oxidative wear was found in the slip and mixed fretting regimes. The formation of a central bulge probably due to plastic flow was observed under gross slip condition of the rotational fretting mode.     

Dependence of polymer sliding friction on normal load and contact pressure

The sliding friction of bulk polymers was studied varying the normal load, contact pressure and sliding velocity. The variation of the area of apparent contact A with normal load W was also measured both under the sliding and unloaded conditions. For the sliding condition A ∝ W, while for the unloaded condition A ∝ Wⁿ where n is less than unity. The friction measurements were performed on a tribometer in the low load range and on a lathe using a strain gage dynamometer in the high load range. It was found that the coefficient of friction depends upon the velocity and pressure and the variation can be explained by the adhesion theory of friction in the light of the conditions at the interface. The measurement of sliding friction in an extrusion process shows that the coefficient of friction decreases with contact pressure and the interface friction shear stress is almost equal to the bulk shear strength of the material. All of these findings support the adhesion theory of friction for polymeric materials.     

Effects of entraining velocity of lubricant and sliding velocity on friction behavior in stainless steel sheet rolling

A series of experiments was carried out using a rolling-type tribometer to investigate the effects on friction behavior of the entraining velocity of the lubricant at the inlet to the contact zone (V) and sliding velocity during deformation (ΔV). Experiments with stainless steel sheets of two different surface roughnesses showed that the variations in the friction coefficient with entraining velocity V and sliding velocity ΔV are largely dependent on the initial surface texture of the workpiece. For a smooth workpiece, the friction coefficient decreases with increasing sliding velocity ΔV but keeps almost constant with increasing entraining velocity V. However, for a rough workpiece, the friction coefficient initially decreases slowly and increases largely with increasing sliding velocity ΔV or decreasing entraining velocity V. Observation of the rolled surface for a smooth workpiece shows that, with increasing entraining velocity V, the slip band becomes more marked, and with increasing sliding velocity ΔV, the rubbed portions become more conspicuous. For a rough workpiece, galling occurs at high sliding velocity ΔV. The critical condition for galling outbreak is shown on the V-ΔV graph. The galling outbreak process is observed by interrupting the rolling process.     

Stick‐slip with the slip phase as the starting point

In the literature, the stick‐slip phenomenon is always explained and modelled as starting from an initial stick phase. However, stick‐slip can also occur after a decrease in the imposed velocity, commencing above the critical (stick‐slip‐free) velocity. In this paper, it will be shown how stick‐slip can originate from a situation of pure sliding (without stick phases), if the slope of the friction force‐relative sliding velocity relation (F‐v_rel gradient) is negative. The F‐v_rel gradient used to study stick‐slip must, because of the interaction between the friction force and the dynamic behaviour of the mechanical system, be derived from velocity changes with the same time‐constant as the mechanical system of which the friction interface is part. It will also be shown that steady‐state friction data, and dynamic (non‐stationary) friction results obtained for relatively large (but fast) velocity variations, can lead to completely false conclusions related to stick‐slip.     

Effect of the hardness of hardened steels and the action of oxides on fretting wear

The influence of hardness on fretting wear was investigated experimentally in air using a bearing-steel ball sliding on a 0.6% C steel plate under a load of 34.3 N at a frequency of 16.6 Hz. The total number of cycles was 10⁵ and peak-to-peak amplitudes of 45 and 260 μm were used. The hardness of both materials was varied from 220 to 850 HV.Hardness had only a minor influence on fretting wear. The significant factor was the action of any black oxide produced. The black oxide reduced the wear of the surface from which it was generated but acted as an abrasive against the opposing surface. At a sliding amplitude of 260 μm there were discontinuities on the wear curves due to the formation of black oxide. Similar wear characteristics were obtained with an amplitude of 45 μm except that some heavy damage due to adhesion and material transfer occurred.     

The influence of electrochemical potential on wear

Electrochemical potentials between ?1.4 and +1.2 V (saturated calomel electrode) applied to Ni(200) in the nominally inert electrolyte 1 M NaClO₄ resulted in an observed order of magnitude variation in the wear rate of the nickel under fretting and sliding conditions. The pin-on-disc experiments were carried out with a fused Al₂O₃ pin loaded at 9.8 and 19.6 MPa sliding on discs at 10 m min^?1, and fretting wear was simulated by a high frequency (10⁵–10⁷cm^?2s^?1) low amplitude impact of a vibrating Al₂O₃ pin on the disc. These results suggest that it is possible to control wear in ionically conducting fluids through the application of appropriate electrochemical potentials.     

Different aspects of the role of wear debris in fretting wear

Two different aspects of the role of oxide wear debris in fretting wear are studied by allowing them to escape from the interface during sliding. This is accomplished by laser surface texturing that forms regular micro-pores topography on the friction surfaces which enables this escape. It is found that the role of oxide wear debris depends on the dominant fretting wear mechanism. Their presence in the interface protects the friction surfaces when the dominant wear mechanism is adhesive and harms the friction surfaces when this mechanism is abrasive. The escape of oxide wear debris into the micro-pores results in up to 84% reduction in the electrical contact resistance of the textured fretting surfaces.     

Fretting wear behaviors of a railway axle steel

Fretting damage was one of the most important reasons for the failure of the railway axle. Fretting wear (tangential fretting mode) tests of a railway axle steel (LZ50 steel) flats against 52 100 steel balls were carried out under different normal loads and displacement amplitudes on a hydraulic fretting wear rig. Dynamic analyses in combination with microscopic examinations have been performed. The experimental results showed that the fretting regimes of the LZ50 steel were strongly dependent upon the imposed normal loads and displacement amplitudes. The F_t/F_n curves exhibited different variation trends in different fretting running regimes. The fretting scars presented slight damage in partial slip regime. In mixed fretting regime, the trace of the plowing and plastic deformation flow can be observed on the fretting scars. The wear mechanism during this regime was the combination of the abrasive wear, oxidative wear and delamination accompanied with obvious plastic deformation. The detachment of particles and plowing traces were the main phenomena in slip regime. And, thicker debris layer covered the contact zone of the scar. The severe degradation in slip regime presented the main wear mechanisms of abrasive wear, oxidative wear and delamination.     

Surface morphology in engineering applications: Influence of roughness on sliding and wear in dry fretting

Influence of initial surface roughness on friction and wear processes under fretting conditions was investigated experimentally. Rough surfaces (Ra=0.15-2.52 μm) were prepared on two materials: carbon alloy (AISI 1034) and titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V). Strong influence of initial surface roughness on friction and wear processes is reported for both tested materials. Lower coefficient of friction and increase in wear rate was observed for rough surfaces. Wear activation energy is increasing for smoother surfaces. Lower initial roughness of surface subjected to gross slip fretting can delay activation of wear process and reduce wear rate; however, it can slightly increase the coefficient of friction.     

Friction-induced vibration of oscillating multi-degree of freedom polymeric sliding systems

The purpose of this study is to investigate friction-induced vibration of oscillating systems. Special attention is focused on modeling polymer-on-metal systems. Past experimental and analytical friction results from non-oscillating or unidirectional translational sliding modes are extended into the oscillating sliding mode. Specifically, this refers to the incorporation of a representative functional shape of the friction–velocity relationships estimated from experimental results. Dependent on the relative sliding velocity between the frictionally coupled subsystems, the modeled system exhibits behavior such as a single stick–slip at the beginning of oscillatory motion, a single stick–slip at each motion reversal, or multiple stick-slip events during each half cycle of motion. Additionally, the boundary of incipient friction-induced vibration was identified via a rigorous definition of friction-induced vibration.     

人工髋关节组合界面微动腐蚀研究进展

关节组合界面的微动腐蚀行为将直接影响人工关节假体的使用寿命。综述髋关节组合界面微动腐蚀的基本原理,介绍假体组合方式、组合界面材料、设计参数、手术操作及患者和生理因素5个方面对组合面微动腐蚀影响的研究进展,提出未来研究的重点是通过建立人工髋关节多尺度模型,利用试验测试和仿真计算方法,考察关节力、关节运动及滑动面摩擦学、材料配副、不同设计的组合件及环境介质等条件对微动腐蚀行为的影响规律。     

The investigation of the steady stage of steel fretting

The effects of slip length, frequency, surface pressure and shape of the longitudinal oscillatory motion on the fretting wear of steel were investigated by a specially designed fretting apparatus using an M.T.S. closed loop axial hydraulic testing system.

The rate of fretting wear in the steady stage was found to increase with increasing slip length and specific surface pressure and to decrease with increasing cyclic frequency and material hardness. The wave shape of the oscillatory motion does not appear to affect the wear rate.

Increased slip, greater surface pressure and lower cycling frequency all promote the adhesion mechanism of fretting. With higher frequencies decreased slip and low surface pressures, the product of fretting wear is mainly oxides and oxidation is the leading wear mechanism.