Poly(vinyl chloride)–Acacia bark flour composite: Effect of particle size and filler content on mechanical,thermal, and morphological characteristics

This article describes the effect of filler [obtained from bark of Acacia (Babool)] content and its particle size (ranging from 100 to 150 μm and <50 μm) on the properties of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) composites. Bark of the fast‐growing species Acacia was used as powder for making PVC composites, which may find applications as a substitute to high‐cost wood and to avoid deforestation. A two‐roll mill was used for mixing varying amounts of bark flour with PVC formulation. Samples for testing were prepared by compression molding. Tensile strength and percentage of elongation at break decreased, whereas modulus increased with an increasing amount of bark flour. A significant increase in storage modulus (E′) was observed upon incorporation of filler. Improvement in properties was significant in the presence of filler, having a particle size <50 μm as compared to filler, having a particle size ranging from 100 to 150 μm. Morphological characterization was conducted by using scanning electron microscopy. A uniform dispersion of filler was observed in PVC matrix. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010     

Effects of copper amine treatment on mechanical properties of PVC/wood‐flour composites

Copper amine–treated wood flour was added to PVC [poly(vinyl chloride)] matrix in order to manufacture PVC/wood‐flour composites. Effects of copper treatments on the mechanical properties of PVC‐wood composites were evaluated. Unnotched impact strength, flexural strength, and flexural toughness of the composites were significantly improved by the wood‐flour copper treatment. The optimum copper concentration range was 0.2 to 0.6 wt% of wood flour. Fractured surfaces were examined by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) combined with energy‐dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). PVC/wood interfacial debonding was the main fracture mode of untreated wood‐flour composites, whereas wood‐particle pullout and breakage dominating the fractured surfaces of copper‐treated wood‐flour composites. On the fractured surfaces, more PVC could be found on the exposed copper‐treated wood particles than on untreated wood, a result suggesting improved PVC‐wood interfacial adhesion after copper treatments. J. Vinyl Addit. Technol. 10:70–78, 2004. © 2004 Society of Plastics Engineers.     

Mechanical properties of poly(vinyl chloride)/wood flour/glass fiber hybrid composites

Short glass fibers were added to poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)/wood flour composites as reinforcement agents. Unnotched and notched impact strength of PVC/wood flour/glass fiber hybrid composites could be increased significantly without losing flexural properties by adding type L glass fibers and over 40% of PVC. There was no such improvement when using type S glass fiber. The impact strength of hybrid composites increased along with the increment of the type L glass fiber content at a 50% PVC content. At high PVC contents, impact fracture surfaces were characterized by wood particle, glass fiber breakage and pullout, whereas interfacial debonding was the dominant fracture mode at higher filler concentrations. The significant improvement in impact strength of hybrid composites was attributed to the formation of the three‐dimensional network glass fiber architecture between type L glass fibers and wood flour.     

Effects of chicken eggshell filler size on the processing,mechanical and thermal properties of PVC matrix composite

The effects of filler particle size of poly(vinyl chloride)/chicken eggshell powder (PVC/ESP) composites on the processing, tensile properties, morphology and thermal degradation were investigated. The mixing of composites was done using Rheomix internal mixer. The processing torque of PVC/ESP composite at a particle of 0.2 μm exhibits lower processing torque compared to that at a particle size of 7 μm due to the dispersive resistance from larger ESP filler particles. Good interfacial adhesion exists between the filler and matrix in composites prepared via a filler particle size of 0.2 μm, which has improved the tensile strength and modulus of PVC/ESP composite compared to a filler particle size of 7 μm as justified from FESEM images on the tensile fracture surface of the composites. Thermogravimetric analysis results show that the filler particle size of 0.2 μm composite exhibits higher thermal stability compared to the filler particle size of 7 μm composite.     

Evaluation and optimization of the mechanical properties of highly filled PVC/(wood flour) composites by using experimental design

In this study, PVC/(wood flour) (WF) composites were prepared by using a counterrotating twin‐screw extruder, and the effects on the mechanical properties of concentration and particle size of the WF, type and amount of coupling agent, K value of PVC, feed rate of extruder, and die temperature were investigated. Optimization of various formulation parameters based on the Taguchi method demonstrated that the wood content and wood particle size were the most important parameters. Flexural modulus increased upon increasing WF loading up to 50 wt%. Also, flexural strength and modulus increased with particle size because of the higher aspect ratio and better quality of mixing. Use of coupling agents had a minor effect that was attributed to the moderately high polarity of PVC causing relatively good compatibility between WF particles and the PVC matrix. The optimum level of WF calculated by considering the contribution factor was 50 wt%. J. VINYL ADDIT. TECHNOL., 2011. © 2011 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Tensile properties,morphology, and thermal behavior of PVC composites containing pine flour and bamboo flour

Composites of unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) blended with bamboo flour and pine flour, respectively, were prepared in a batch mixer followed by compression molding. The effects of wood flour fillers on the morphology, static mechanical properties, and thermal properties of the composites were investigated. Compared with neat PVC resin, the introduction of both bamboo flour and pine flour significantly improved the stiffness of the composites, while decreasing the tensile strength to some extent. Tensile tests showed that pine flour–filled composites exhibited better mechanical properties than those filled with bamboo flour with the same particle size at the same loading level. Scanning electron microscopic examination revealed good dispersion and alignment tendency of short pine fiber within the composites at a lower loading level. Moreover, experimental results indicated that both bamboo flour and pine flour additions showed no obviously adverse effect on the thermal stabilities of these composites. Based on the comprehensive properties, these composites meet the need of woodlike material for use as wood structures. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 1804–1811, 2004     

木粉对PVC木塑复合材料力学性能影响

采用电镜扫描观察了3种木粉的纤维细胞尺寸及其木粉微观形态。研究了木粉粒度、微观特性以及木粉添加量对了聚氯乙烯（PVC）木塑复合材料力学性能的影响。结果表明，木粉表面裸露的微细纤维增加和粒度减小，有助于提高木塑复合材料力学强度；加入少量木粉使木塑复合材料力学性能降低，但随着木粉添加量的增大，木塑复合材料的抗弯性能和拉伸强度上升；木塑复合材料的冲击强度随木粉含量增加而下降。     

Effect of filler loading on the mechanical properties of crosslinked 1,2,3‐triazole polymers

The effect of filler loading on the mechanical properties of crosslinked triazole polymers obtained by polymerization of E300 dipropiolate ( 1 ) with diazide ( 2 ) obtained from tetraethylene glycol using tetraacetylene functionalized crosslinker ( 3 ) was studied systematically. Aluminum (10–14 μm) was used as the primary filler during the formulations; the effect of secondary fillers such as aluminum (<75 μm), NaCl (45–50 and 83–105 μm) was studied with the increase in the total filler loading. The modulus of the aluminum‐filled crosslinked triazole polymers increases with the increase in the filler content while using either particle sized aluminum powder. The use of Al (particle size <75 μm) and NaCl (particle size 45–50 μm and 83–105 μm) as secondary or additional fillers while using aluminum (10–14 μm) as the main filler, has a diminishing effect on the modulus and strain of the crosslinked triazole polymers. Triazole polymers described herein have the ability to wet and adhere to large quantities of these inorganic salts and thus maintain mechanical properties of the composite comparable to typical polyurethane elastomeric matrices, regardless of the chemistry of the particulate filler, which imparts an important and necessary binder characteristic for energetic composites. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010     

木质填料种类及含量对木塑复合材料性能的影响

研究了木质填料的种类和含量对木塑复合材料性能的影响。实验发现:随着木粉、竹粉含量的提高,复合材料的拉伸强度、维卡软化温度、弯曲强度和弯曲模量都得到了较大幅度的提高,冲击强度、断裂伸长率和熔体流动速率有所下降。不同粒径和不同种类的木质填料对复合材料的力学性能也有明显的影响,以100目木粉制得复合材料的性能最好,DSC实验数据分析表明:木粉、竹粉含量的变化对复合材料体系的熔融温度有影响;SEM扫描冲击断口形貌表明:相容剂能够有效改善木粉与HDPE界面的相容性,提高界面黏合力,从而使复合材料的性能得到提高。     

Biodegradability and mechanical properties of agro‐flour–filled polybutylene succinate biocomposites

The objective of this study was the production of rice husk flour (RHF) and wood flour (WF) filled polybutylene succinate (PBS) biocomposites as alternatives to cellulosic material filled conventional plastic (polyolefins) composites. PBS is one of the biodegradable polymers, made from the condensation reaction of 1,4‐butanediol and succinic acid that can be naturally degraded in the natural environment. We compared the mechanical properties between conventional plastics and agro‐flour–filled PBS biocomposites. We evaluated the biodegradability and mechanical properties of agro‐flour–filled PBS biocomposites according to the content and filler particle size of agro‐flour. As the agro‐flour loading was increased, the tensile and impact strength of the biocomposites decreased. As the filler particle size decreased, the tensile strength of the biocomposites increased but the impact strength decreased. The addition of agro‐flour to PBS produced a more rapid decrease in the tensile strength, notched Izod impact strength, and percentage weight loss of the biocomposites during the natural soil burial test. These results support the application of biocomposites as environmentally friendly materials. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 97: 1513–1521, 2005     

Polypropylene (PP)–Acacia mangiumcomposites: the effect of acetylation on mechanical and water absorption properties

Acacia mangiumwood flour (AMWF)–polypropylene (PP) composites were produced at different filler loading (20, 30, 40, and 50 w/w) and mesh no. (35, 60, 80, and 100 mesh). The AMWF–PP composites (using unmodified or modified wood flour) were compounded using a Haake Rheodrive 500 twin screw compounder. The mechanical and water absorption (WA) properties of modified (only at mesh no. 100) and unmodified AMWF–PP composites were investigated. Increase in the mesh number (35–100) of the unmodified AMWF showed increased flexural and impact properties. Flexural modulus exhibited higher properties as the filler loading increased (20–50). However, flexural and impact strength showed the opposite phenomenon. Water absorption and thickness swelling increased as the mesh number and filler loading increased. This has been attributed to the presence of hydrophilic hydroxyl groups of the filler. Modified AMWF–PP composites exhibited higher mechanical properties and good water resistance when compared to unmodified AMWF–PP composites at all values of filler loading. The evidence of the failure mechanism (from impact strength) of the filler–matrix interface was analyzed using scanning electron microscope.     

聚丙烯/木粉复合材料的制备及其力学性能的研究

以聚丙烯为基体,木粉为填料,采用机械共混、二次挤出共混和注塑成型方法制备不同木粉含量的PP/木粉复合材料,并且测定了PP/木粉复合材料的力学性能。实验结果表明:随着木粉用量的增加,复合材料拉伸强度逐渐增大;木粉用量为60%时,复合材料拉伸强度达到最大值36.04 MPa;木粉用量为80%时,复合材料拉伸强度降低到34.60 MPa。木粉的含量由20%增加到80%,复合材料弹性模量由579.12 MPa增加到869.80MPa,断裂伸长率从18.92%降低到7.39%,冲击强度由9.33 kJ/m2降低到7.76 kJ/m2。这是因为PP/木粉复合材料体系中随着木粉含量的增加,木粉起到了应力集中的作用,使材料变脆,冲击强度降低。     

表面处理对木粉增强PVC发泡复合板材性能的影响

研究表面处理的木粉对发泡聚氯乙烯(PVC)板材的增强改性效果。使用铝酸酯偶联剂、丙烯酸丁酯预聚物对木粉进行表面处理，将其混合到聚氯乙烯发泡板材配料中进行板材加工生产，结果表明，经处理的木粉能提高发泡PVC板材的拉伸强度和冲击强度。用铝酸酯偶联剂处理木粉的发泡板材力学性能好于用丙烯酸丁酯预聚物处理的板材；而用丙烯酸丁酯预聚物处理木粉的复合材料在流变加工性能优于用铝酸酯处理木粉的复合材料。     

Durability of wood flour‐plastic composites exposed to accelerated freeze–thaw cycling. Part I. Rigid PVC matrix

This study examined the effects of accelerated freeze–thaw actions on the durability of wood fiber‐plastic composites. Rigid PVC formulations filled with various concentrations of wood flour (both pine and maple) were processed in a counterrotating twin‐screw extruder and exposed to cyclic freeze–thaw actions according to ASTM Standard D6662. Freeze–thaw cycling was also modified by omitting portions of the test (either the water or freezing) to verify whether or not moisture was the primary cause for property loss. The durability of exposed samples was assessed in terms of flexural properties, density, and dimensional stability. Scanning electron micrographs of unexposed and freeze–thaw‐exposed samples were taken to qualitatively evaluate the interfacial adhesion between the wood flour and PVC matrix. The experimental results indicated that the density was not affected by freeze–thaw cycling. The dimensional stability was also relatively unaffected, although greater wood flour content exhibited greater dimensional change. The loss in stiffness of the composites was statistically significant after only two freeze–thaw cycles, regardless of both the wood species and content. Conversely, the strength of the composites was not significantly affected by five freeze–thaw cycles at lower wood flour contents (50 and 75 phr). The deleterious effects of the freeze–thaw actions on the strength of the composites became apparent at higher wood flour content (100 phr) after only two freeze–thaw cycles for maple flour and five freeze–thaw cycles for pine flour. The property loss was attributed primarily to the water portion of the cycling, which appears to have led to the decreased interfacial adhesion between the wood flour and the rigid PVC matrix. J. VINYL. ADDIT. TECHNOL. 11:1–8, 2005. © 2005 Society of Plastics Engineers.     

Wood flour: A new filler for the rubber processing industry. I. Cure characteristics and mechanical properties of wood flour‐filled NBR and NBR/PVC compounds

In this study, conifer wood flour was evaluated as a filler to NBR or NBR/PVC compounds studying it influence on their cure characteristics and mechanical properties. It was shown that the filling by wood flour offers a possibility to obtain high modulus high elastic or less elastic or rigid wood like vulcanizates by varying of both the filling level and NBR/PVC mass ratio.It was established that in contrary to the mineral fillers usually causing significant delay of the vulcanization process, the wood flour shows a tendency to reduce the optimum cure time, τ₉₀. Modulus M₁₀₀ and Shore hardness of the wood flour‐filled vulcanizates of NBR or NBR/PVC compounds in which NBR is predominant, increase in a compliance with the increase of M_max and DM when the filling level increases. The dependence is other when NBR and PVC are in equal amounts or PVC predominates. As a most probable explanation of the effect of the wood flour on the cure characteristics is accepted, the influence of the wood flour polar groups as well as of the presenting as wood flour humidity water molecules, the specific mechanical properties of the wood flour‐filled NBR or NBR/PVC compounds could be connected (to some extend) with a specific interface interaction between the wood flour particles and the polymer matrix. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 90: 2734–2739, 2003     

Fusion characteristics of rigid PVC/wood‐flour composites by torque rheometry

This study was aimed at examining the effects of wood flour contents, wood species (softwood vs. hardwood), and particle size on the fusion characteristics (fusion time, fusion temperature, fusion torque, and fusion energy) of rigid PVC/wood‐flour composites in a torque rheometer. Neat rigid PVC exhibited one fusion peak, whereas the addition of wood flour into the PVC matrix led to two fusion peaks. Increased wood flour content caused a significant increase in the time, temperature, and energy at which fusion between the primary particles started, thereby leading to increased fusion torque, irrespective of the wood flour species. These results implied that rigid PVC filled with wood flour must be processed at higher temperatures than neat resin. Although fusion characteristics of the composites were influenced by the wood species, a clear trend between softwood and hardwood species could not be established. However, finer particles fused more quickly and needed less energy than coarse ones. J. VINYL ADDIT. TECHNOL., 13:7–13, 2007. © 2007 Society of Plastics Engineers.     

Influence of various wood modifications on the properties of polyvinyl chloride/wood flour composites

Aminosilane, melamine and acetic anhydride treated wood flour were added to polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in order to process improved PVC/wood flour composites. The influence of wood treatment on water absorption and mechanical properties were evaluated. Treatments with amino-alkyl functional oligomeric siloxane and melamine in suitable concentration as well as acetylated wood flour composites showed decreased equilibrium moisture content and reduced speed of water absorption. Tensile strength, elongation at break and unnotched impact strength were considerably improved by the aminosilane treatments. The increase in strength and elongation was mainly influenced by the chemical structure and concentration of the used aminosilanes. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2012     

木粉和发泡剂对PVC基木塑复合发泡材料性能的影响

以木粉、聚氯乙烯树脂、发泡剂等为原料,通过连续挤出得到发泡木塑复合材料。对木粉的热失重、复合发泡材料的泡孔形态、力学性能进行了测试。结果表明:发泡剂用量不应超过1phr;在本实验范围内,木粉粒径的减小会使发泡更容易,材料的力学性能得到改善;木粉粒径对泡孔形态和力学性能的影响有一个最佳范围,即20~80目。     

Mechanical and flame-resistance properties of polyurethane-imide foams with different-sized expandable graphite

Polyurethane-imide (PUI) composite foams with expandable graphite (EG) of different sizes were prepared by a polyimide prepolymer method. EG particles were treated with a silane coupling agent to improve compatibility with the foam. The effect of EG particle size on cell morphology, thermal degradation, flame-resistance and mechanical properties of PUI foams was investigated. Results showed that the mean cellular diameter of foams with EG particle was much higher than that of foams with surface-modified EG particle at the same filler loading. When filler particle diameter increased from 20 to 90 μm, the compressive strength, density and closed-cell ratio of foams increased, and then decreased when filler particle diameter further increased from 90 to 150 μm. Thermal stability of foams increased with the increasing filler particle diameter from 20 to 50 μm, and decreased with the increasing filler particle diameter from 50 to 90 μm. The limited oxygen index (LOI) value of foams with surface-modified EG increased from 24.8% to 32.1% when EG particle diameter was below 90 μm. Foams with surface-modified EG exhibited enhanced mechanical properties, thermal stability and flame resistance than foams with neat EG at the same loading.     

Study on thermal,mechanical and morphological properties of recycled poly(vinyl chloride)/fly ash composites

The present study deals with the development of composite materials utilizing recycled poly(vinyl chloride) (r‐PVC) recovered from waste electrical and electronic materials and waste fly ash obtained from thermal power plants. The effect of the incorporation of fly ash on the mechanical, thermal and morphological properties of the r‐PVC matrix was studied. The primary characterization of r‐PVC and fly ash was done employing FTIR, EDX, particle size analysis and XRD analysis. Subsequently, fly ash with a particle size of approximately 9.29 μm was incorporated within the r‐PVC matrix. Composite sheets were prepared using a melt blending process followed by compression moulding. The mechanical test revealed an increase in the tensile strength and elongation at break of the r‐PVC/fly ash composite up to 30 wt% loading of fly ash beyond which there was a decrease in the tensile strength. The impact strength, however, decreased with increasing fly ash content in the r‐PVC matrix. The morphological properties of the composites showed a good distribution of the filler within the recycled matrix. The thermal properties of r‐PVC also improved with the incorporation of fly ash which was revealed from DSC and TGA studies. The water absorption test showed an increase in water uptake with the addition of fly ash in the r‐PVC matrix. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry