Enhanced properties of poly(ε-caprolactone)/polyvinylpyrrolidone electrospun scaffolds fabricated using 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol

Poly(ε-caprolactone)/polyvinylpyrrolidone (PCL/PVP) scaffolds with various composition were fabricated from 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol (HFIP) solution using the same electrospinning parameters in order to reveal the effect of polymer ratio on the material properties. The obtained materials were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, contact angle measurements, X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy, and tensile testing. The strengthening effect of PVP was observed: Young modulus of PCL/PVP scaffold with 50/50 polymer ratio was found at 105.4 ± 8.4 MPa which is six times higher comparing to those of PCL scaffold. PVP-containing scaffolds were extremely hydrophilic with PVP concentration of 5 wt% (vs. 25 wt% in previous reports) leading to full wetting of the material. in vitro studies showed an improved viability of HeLa cells cultured with the composites containing higher concentrations of PVP. Owing to the application of HFIP, PCL-based materials were loaded with cyclophosphamide for the first time and the PVP-containing materials demonstrated the intensified initial release of the model compound. Utilizing HFIP for the fabrication of PCL/PVP scaffolds significantly widens their application for drug delivery systems due to a good solubility of proteins, drugs, and other biologically active compounds in this solvent.     

Dual drug spatiotemporal release from functional gradient scaffolds prepared using 3D bioprinting and electrospinning

Functional gradient scaffolds play an important role in osteochondral tissue engineering because they can meet the essential requirement for a gradual transition of both physical and chemical properties in osteochondral tissue regeneration. There is a requirement for 3D composite osteochondral regeneration scaffolds with multiscale structures that are capable of controlling release of multiple biomolecules. To this end, this article describes a 3D bioprinting platform integrated forming system designed to produce various drug‐loaded scaffolds. A novel scaffold was fabricated by the self‐developed 3D bioprinting platform combining extrusion deposition with multi‐nozzle electrospinning. For temporally controlled release of gentamycin sulfate (GS) and desferoxamine (DFO), blend electrospun GS/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and coaxial electrospun core (PVA‐DFO)/shell (polycaprolactone; PCL) fibers were deposited in the scaffold. After a 25‐day time‐lapse release study in vitro, results showed GS released faster than DFO during the early stages and sustained release of DFO for long periods. For spatially controlled release of DFO, the vertically gradient gelatin/sodium alginate (SA) scaffolds presented to enable the release amount of DFO in a gradient mode. The experiment and test results demonstrate the validity of the 3D bioprinting platform integrated forming system and the excellent properties of such scaffolds for performing multidrug spatiotemporal release. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 56:170–177, 2016. © 2015 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Biocomposite scaffolds for 3D cell culture: Propolis enriched polyvinyl alcohol nanofibers favoring cell adhesion

The objective of this work is generation of propolis/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) scaffold by electrospinning for 3D cell culture. Here, PVA used as co-spinning agent since propolis alone cannot be easily processed by electrospinning methodology. Propolis takes charge in maximizing biological aspect of scaffold to facilitate cell attachment and proliferation. Morphological analysis showed size of the electrospun nanofibers varied between 172–523 nm and 345–687 nm in diameter, for non-crosslinked and crosslinked scaffolds, respectively. Incorporation of propolis resulted in desired surface properties of hybrid matrix, where hybrid scaffolds highly favored protein adsorption. To examine cell compatibility, NIH-3T3 and HeLa cells were seeded on propolis/PVA hybrid scaffold. Results confirmed that integration of propolis supported cell adhesion and cell proliferation. Also, results indicated electrospun propolis/PVA hybrid scaffold provide suitable microenvironment for cell culturing. Therefore, developed hybrid scaffold could be considered as potential candidate for 3D cell culture and tissue engineering.     

The inclusion of fetal bovine serum in gelatin/PCL electrospun scaffolds reduces short‐term osmotic stress in HEK 293 cells caused by scaffold components

Components of gelatin/polycaprolactone (PCL) electrospun scaffolds are released to surrounding media and cause osmotic changes that adversely affect cell viability and proliferation. In this study, the physiological properties of gelatin/PCL scaffolds were investigated by qRT‐PCR and by performing cellular studies on HEK 293 cells. Components released from gelatin/PCL scaffolds were found to induce osmotic stress response in these cells. However, osmotic stress was inhibited by adding fetal bovine serum (FBS) to scaffolds. In addition, focal adhesion related genes were found to be up‐regulated in HEK 293 cells on gelatin/PCL/20% FBS scaffolds, and this induced the down‐regulations of cell‐death related genes. Furthermore, the inclusion of 20% FBS improved the viabilities of HEK 293 cells on gelatin/PCL scaffolds. This study indicates that adding FBS to gelatin/PCL scaffolds improves scaffold bio‐affinity. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013     

Fused deposition processing polycaprolactone of composites for biomedical applications

The polycaprolactone (PCL)-engineered scaffolds demonstrate cell viability, which is useful for bone tissue applications. The FDA-approved PCL can be engineered with various transition metals, polymers, and nanomaterials, for biomimicking of extracellular matrix via fabrication of its scaffolds. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is an innovative technique for processing of biopolymers via biologically functionalized nanoparticles, leveraging design of stacked architecture at microlevel resolution. Present review gives progress on PCL biomaterials processed via FDM, for bioactive scaffolds and bone tissue applications. Finally, review concludes with benefits of PCL biomaterials processed via FDM and their applicability for biomedical applications.     

熔体静电纺丝直写技术在组织工程中的应用进展

熔体静电纺丝直写技术以其纤维直径、沉积形貌可控性高及无溶剂残留等优势,为高强度复杂形貌可控仿生组织工程（TE）支架的制备提供了巨大的空间,成为近年来的研究热点。本文首先简述了熔体静电纺丝直写技术相对于各类其他TE支架制备方法的优势;其次从工艺调控方面综述了熔体静电纺丝直写技术的工艺研究进展,并总结了实现复杂可控形貌TE支架的调控方法;随后从支架材料、形貌表征和细胞培养效果等方面综述了熔体静电纺丝直写技术的TE应用进展,并概括了该技术制备的TE拓扑结构支架的种类及特点;最后指出熔体静电纺丝直写技术具有广阔的研究前景,且该技术应以制备仿生、材料多样化以及复合支架为研究重点。     

Hyaluronic Acid and a Short Peptide Improve the Performance of a PCL Electrospun Fibrous Scaffold Designed for Bone Tissue Engineering Applications

Bone tissue engineering is a rapidly developing, minimally invasive technique for regenerating lost bone with the aid of biomaterial scaffolds that mimic the structure and function of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Recently, scaffolds made of electrospun fibers have aroused interest due to their similarity to the ECM, and high porosity. Hyaluronic acid (HA) is an abundant component of the ECM and an attractive material for use in regenerative medicine; however, its processability by electrospinning is poor, and it must be used in combination with another polymer. Here, we used electrospinning to fabricate a composite scaffold with a core/shell morphology composed of polycaprolactone (PCL) polymer and HA and incorporating a short self-assembling peptide. The peptide includes the arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) motif and supports cellular attachment based on molecular recognition. Electron microscopy imaging demonstrated that the fibrous network of the scaffold resembles the ECM structure. In vitro biocompatibility assays revealed that MC3T3-E1 preosteoblasts adhered well to the scaffold and proliferated, with significant osteogenic differentiation and calcium mineralization. Our work emphasizes the potential of this multi-component approach by which electrospinning, molecular self-assembly, and molecular recognition motifs are combined, to generate a leading candidate to serve as a scaffold for bone tissue engineering.     

Surface Modification of Electrospun TPU Nanofiber Scaffold with CNF Particles by Ultrasound‐Assisted Technique for Tissue Engineering

A straightforward, fast, and versatile technique is developed to fabricate nanofibrous scaffold with excellent hydrophilicity, mechanical properties, and biocompatibility for tissue engineering. The thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) nanofiber is fabricated by utilizing electrospinning, and then its surface is modified through simply immersing it into cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) dispersion and subjecting to ultrasonication. The results show that the CNF particles are successfully absorbed on the surface of TPU nanofiber. By introducing CNF particles on the surface of TPU nanofiber, the hydrophilicity, mechanical properties of fabricated CNF‐absorbed TPU scaffold are significantly increased. Additionally, the adhesion and proliferation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells cultured on CNF‐absorbed TPU scaffold are prominently enhanced in comparison with those of cultured on TPU scaffold. These findings suggest that the ultrasound‐assisted technique opens up a new way to simply and effectively modify the surface of various scaffolds and the modified scaffold could be shown a great potential in tissue engineering.     

Plasma polymerization‐modified bacterial polyhydroxybutyrate nanofibrillar scaffolds

The design and the development of novel scaffold materials for tissue engineering have attracted much interest in recent years. Especially, the prepared nanofibrillar scaffold materials from biocompatible and biodegradable polymers by electrospinning are promising materials to be used in biomedical applications. In this study, we propose to produce low‐cost and cell‐friendly bacterial electrospun PHB polymeric scaffolds by using Alcaligenes eutrophus DSM 545 strain to PHB production. The produced PHB was characterized by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). Nanofibrous scaffolds were fabricated via electrospinning method that has a fiber diameter approximately 700–800 nm. To investigate cell attachment, cell growth, and antioxidant enzyme activity on positively and negatively charged PHB scaffold, PHB surface was modified by plasma polymerization technique using polyethylene glycol (PEG) and ethylenediamine (EDA). According to the results of superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity study, PEG‐modified nanofibrillar scaffolds indicated more cellular resistance against oxidative stress compared to the EDA modification. As can be seen in cell proliferation results, EDA modification enhanced the cell proliferation more than PEG modification, while PEG modification is better as compared with nonmodified scaffolds. In general, through plasma polymerization technique, surface modified nanofibrillar structures are effective substrates for cell attachment and outgrowth. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013     

Bioengineering of Dental Pulp Stem Cells in a Microporous PNIPAAm-PLGA Scaffold

In the present article a novel bio absorbable polymeric scaffold using poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide-block-poly(L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PNIPAAm-b-PLGA) copolymers is developed for in vitro culture of human dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs). The processing of porous scaffolds has been carried out by emulsion freeze-drying and salt leaching out methods. DPSCs were cultured on scaffolds for up to 14 days. The morphology of the scaffolds, cell viability and interaction between DPSCs and scaffold was characterized by using SEM. The results of cells implantation indicated that scaffold has good cell biocompatibility. Therefore PNIPAAm-PLGA scaffolds have great potential to be used as cell carrier in tissue engineering.     

Fabrication and characterization of natural origin chitosan‐ gelatin‐alginate composite scaffold by foaming method without using surfactant

A natural origin tripolymer scaffold from chitosan, gelatin, and alginate was fabricated by applying foaming method without adding any foam stabilizing surfactant. Previously, in foaming method of scaffold fabrication, toxic surfactants were used to stabilize the foam, but in this work, the use of surfactant has been avoided strictly, which can provide better environment for cellular response and viability. In foaming method, stable foam is produced simply by agitating the polymer (alginate‐gelatin) solution, and the foam is crosslinked with CaCl₂, glutaraldehyde, and chitosan to produce tripolymer alginate‐gelatin‐chitosan composite scaffold. Microscopic images of the composite scaffold revealed the presence of interconnected pores, mostly spread over the entire surface of the scaffold. The scaffold has a porosity of 90% with a mean pore size of 57 μm. Swelling and degradation studies of the scaffold showed that the scaffold possesses excellent properties of hydrophilicity and biodegradability. In vitro cell culture studies by seeding L929 mouse fibroblast cells on scaffold revealed excellent cell viability, proliferation rate and adhesion as indicated by MTT assay, DNA quantification, and phase contrast microscopy of cell‐scaffold construct. The natural origin composite scaffold fabricated by the simplest method i.e., foaming method, but without adding any surfactant, is cheap, biocompatible, and it might find potential applications in the field of tissue engineering. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013     

Development and Evaluation of Biomimetic 3D Coated Composite Scaffold for Application as Skin Substitutes

Skin injuries are an urgent health issue, which raises a great concern in the clinic. Although numerous strategies have been proposed to fabricate skin substitutes for treatment of wounds over the past several decades, fabricating an ideal skin substitute to replace the damaged one can still be a problem. In this study, a novel biomimetic 3D composite skin scaffold is fabricated by combining electrohydrodynamic (EHD) jetting, electrospinning, and coating techniques. Here, the first polycaprolactone (PCL) porous structure is produced by the EHD jetting. Next, the second polylactic acid (PLA) membrane consisted of nanoscale fibers is prepared on the PCL porous structure via the electrospinning. The PCL porous structure and PLA fibers membrane can mimic the dermis and epidermis layer, respectively. Furthermore, gelatin is used as coating solution to enhance the biocompatibility of the scaffold. The structure and morphology of the fabricated scaffolds are analyzed, and the mechanical properties are investigated as well. Moreover, the in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrate the biocompatibility of the materials and the fabrication process. In conclusion, these results demonstrate that the composite scaffold is effective and holds great potential for skin regeneration in the clinic.     

Ultrasonication‐Induced Modification of Hydroxyapatite Nanoparticles onto a 3D Porous Poly(lactic acid) Scaffold with Improved Mechanical Properties and Biocompatibility

A 3D porous poly(lactic acid) (PLA) scaffold with high porosity and well‐connected pores is fabricated using a vacuum‐assisted solvent casting technique. Its surface is modified with hydroxyapatite (HA) nanoparticles using ultrasonication to prepare an HA‐modified PLA/HA scaffold. For reference, an HA‐blended (b‐PLA‐HA) scaffold is fabricated via the solution blending method. The morphology, porosity, hydrophilicity, swelling ratio, mechanical properties, and cell viability of the PLA, b‐PLA‐HA, and PLA/HA scaffolds are systematically studied. The results show that HA nanoparticles are successfully introduced onto the surface of the PLA/HA scaffold, and strong interactions occur between the HA nanoparticles and the PLA matrix. The PLA/HA scaffold still has a high porosity of more than 85% after ultrasonication. The hydrophilicity and mechanical properties of the PLA/HA scaffold are significantly higher than those of the PLA and b‐PLA‐HA scaffolds. Compared with the PLA and b‐PLA‐HA scaffolds, the attachment and growth of mouse embryonic osteoblasts cells (MC3T3‐E1) cultured on the PLA/HA scaffold significantly improve, due to most HA nanoparticles on the surface, resulting in a good and direct interaction between the cells and the scaffold. Therefore, the PLA/HA scaffold possesses great potential to be used as a tissue engineering scaffold.     

Electrospun vascular graft properties following femtosecond laser ablation

For polymers in tissue engineering to reach their full potential, the three‐dimensional integration of cells with scaffolds must become more complex. In vascular grafts this is particularly challenging as specific physical property requirements must be met. We apply a combination of polymer processing techniques—electrospinning and femtosecond laser ablation—to produce microchannels inside the walls of electrospun tubes providing for spatially‐controlled cell seeding. To determine if such a scaffold can provide the desired physical properties, a greater understanding of the relationship between manufacturing and mechanics is needed. As the strength of these scaffolds is an important functional component, the relative properties of single, bi‐ and tri‐layer combinations produced using different solvents were compared. The effect of fiber layer thickness was also investigated. The thickness of the hexafluorisopropanol‐derived layer dominated the overall scaffold properties regardless of the nature of the other two layers. Although laser‐machined microchannels had substantial effects on single layer and some of the bilayers, in the “final” trilayer scaffold, little effect on mechanical properties was observed. The concept of “vascular wall engineering” could successfully produce trilayer composite scaffolds that maintain the targeted mechanical properties while allowing intricate, three‐dimensional cell seeding. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2012     

Influence of hydroxyapatite and BMP‐2 on bioactivity and bone tissue formation ability of electrospun PLLA nanofibers

An excellent bioactive scaffold material which could induce and promote new bone formation is essential in the bone repair field. In this study, the bioactive material hydroxyapatite (HA) and the bone morphogenetic protein‐2 (BMP‐2) were added to poly‐l‐lactic acid (PLLA) using the electrospinning method. Scanning electron microscopy investigations performed on four different fiber scaffolds, PLLA, PLLA/HA, PLLA/BMP‐2 and PLLA/HA/BMP‐2, revealed that the fibers of all scaffolds are closely interwoven, and the presence of large interconnected voids between the fibers, resulting in a three‐dimensional porous network structure that was similar to the structure of the extracellular matrix of healthy bones. In the MG63 cell culture growth experiments, the composite scaffold material PLLA/HA/BMP‐2 showed a higher bioactivity than the other three scaffold materials. The four scaffold materials were implanted in rabbits’ tibia for 30 and 90 days. The results of the animal experiments indicate that the capability of the PLLA/HA/BMP‐2 composite to induce and promote bone tissue formation was better compared with PLLA/HA or PLLA/BMP‐2, suggesting that PLLA combined with HA/BMP‐2 is a promising material for bone tissue repair. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015 , 132, 42249.     

An investigation into the influence of electrospinning parameters on the diameter and alignment of poly(hydroxybutyrate‐co‐hydroxyvalerate) fibers

Electrospinning is an effective technology for the fabrication of ultrafine fibers, which can be the basic component of a tissue engineering scaffold. In tissue engineering, because cells seeded on fibrous scaffolds with varying fiber diameters and morphologies exhibit different responses, it is critical to control these characteristics of electrospun fibers. The diameter and morphology of electrospun fibers can be influenced by many processing parameters (e.g., electrospinning voltage, needle inner diameter, solution feeding rate, rotational speed of the fiber‐collecting cylinder, and working distance) and solution properties (polymer solution concentration and conductivity). In this study, a factorial design approach was used to systematically investigate the degree of influence of each of these parameters on fiber diameter, degree of fiber alignment, and their possible synergetic effects, using a natural biodegradable polymer, poly(hydroxybutyrate‐co‐hydroxyvalerate), for the electrospinning experiments. It was found that the solution concentration invoked the highest main effect on fiber diameter, whereas both rotational speed of the fiber‐collecting cylinder and addition of a conductivity‐enhancing salt could significantly affect the degree of fiber alignment. By carefully controlling the electrospinning parameters and solution properties, fibrous scaffolds of desired characteristics could be made to meet the requirements of different tissue engineering applications. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011     

Fabrication of PLA/PEG/MWCNT electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds for anticancer drug delivery

In the present study, polylactic acid (PLA)/polyethylene glycol (PEG)/multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds were prepared via electrospinning process and their applications for the anticancer drug delivery system were investigated. A response surface methodology based on Box–Behnken design (BBD) was used to evaluate the effect of key parameters of electrospinning process including solution concentration, feeding rate, tip–collector distance (TCD) and applied voltage on the morphology of PLA/PEG/MWCNT nanofibrous scaffolds. In optimum conditions (concentration of 8.15%, feeding rate of 0.2 mL/h, voltage of 18.50 kV and TCD of 13.0 cm), the minimum experimental fiber diameter was found to be 225 nm which was in good agreement with the predicted value by the BBD analysis (228 nm). In vitro drug release study of doxorubicin (DOX)‐loaded nanofibrous scaffolds, higher drug content induced an extended release of drug. Also, drug release rate was not dependent on drug/polymer ratio in different electrospun nanofibrous formulations. The equation of M_t = c₀ + kt^0.5was used to describe the kinetic data of DOX release from electrospun nanofibers. The cell viability of DOX‐loaded nanofibrous scaffolds was evaluated using 3‐(4,5‐dimethylthiazol‐2‐yl)‐2,5‐diphenyltetrazolium bromide, a tetrazole assay on lung cancer A549 cell lines. We propose that DOX‐incorporated PLA/PEG/MWCNT nanofibrous scaffold could be used as a superior candidate for antitumor drug delivery. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015 , 132, 41286.     

Electrospun polylactide/silk fibroin–gelatin composite tubular scaffolds for small‐diameter tissue engineering blood vessels

Many synthetic scaffolds have been used as vascular substitutes for clinical use. However, many of these scaffolds may not show suitable properties when they are exposed to physiologic vascular environments, and they may fail eventually because of some unexpected conditions. Electrospinning technology offers the potential for controlling the composition, structure, and mechanical properties of scaffolds. In this study, a tubular scaffold (inner diameter = 4.5 mm) composed of a polylactide (PLA) fiber outside layer and a silk fibroin (SF)–gelatin fiber inner layer (PLA/SF–gelatin) was fabricated by electrospinning. The morphological, biomechanical, and biological properties of the composite scaffold were examined. The PLA/SF–gelatin composite tubular scaffold possessed a porous structure; the porosity of the scaffold reached 82 ± 2%. The composite scaffold achieved the appropriate breaking strength (1.28 ± 0.21 MPa) and adequate pliability (elasticity up to 41.11 ± 2.17% strain) and possessed a fine suture retention strength (1.07 ± 0.07 N). The burst pressure of the composite scaffold was 111.4 ± 2.6 kPa, which was much higher than the native vessels. A mitochondrial metabolic assay and scanning electron microscopy observations indicated that both 3T3 mouse fibroblasts and human umbilical vein endothelial cells grew and proliferated well on the composite scaffold in vitro after they were cultured for some days. The PLA/SF–gelatin composite tubular scaffolds presented appropriate characteristics to be considered as candidate scaffolds for blood vessel tissue engineering. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2009     

An applicable electrospinning process for fabricating a mechanically improved nanofiber mat

Engineered polymer scaffolds play an important role in tissue engineering. An ideal scaffold should have good mechanical properties and provide a biologically functional implant site. Considering their large surface area and high porosity, nanofibers have good potential as biomimetic scaffolds. However, the main shortcomings of scaffolds consisting of nanofibers are their mechanical inability to sustain a stress environment for neotissues and shape‐ability to form a variety of shapes and sizes. In this study, we produced design‐based poly (ε‐carprolactone) (PCL) nanofiber mats using an electrospinning method with various auxiliary electrodes and an x‐y moving system. To achieve stable initial solution at a nozzle tip of the electrospinning, various types of auxiliary electrodes were introduced. To characterize the effect of the electrodes in the electric‐field distribution near the nozzle tip, we calculated the electric field concentration factor and compared it with the experimental results. The nanofiber mat produced using the moving x‐y target system demonstrated orthotropic mechanical properties due to the fiber orientation, and human dermal fibroblasts seeded on the structure tended to grow according to nanofiber orientation. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 47:707–712, 2007. © 2007 Society of Plastics Engineers.     

Fabrication and characterization of poly(vinyl alcohol)/graphene oxide nanofibrous biocomposite scaffolds

Nanofibrous biocomposite scaffolds of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and graphene oxide (GO) were prepared by using electrospinning method. The microstructure, crystallinity, and morphology of the scaffolds were characterized through X‐ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The mechanical properties were investigated by tensile testing. Moreover, Mouse Osteoblastic Cells (MC3T3‐E1) attachment and proliferation on the nanofibrous scaffolds were investigated by MTT [3‐(4,5‐dimeth‐ylthiazol‐2‐yl)‐2,5‐diphenyl tetrazolium bromide] assay, SEM observation and fluorescence staining. XRD and FTIR results verify the presence of GO in the scaffolds. SEM images show the three‐dimensional porous fibrous morphology, and the average diameter of the composite fibers decreases with increasing the content of GO. The mechanical properties of the scaffolds are altered by changing the content of GO as well. The tensile strength and elasticity modulus increase when the content of GO is lower than 1 wt %, but decrease when GO is up to 3 and 5 wt %. MC3T3‐E1 cells attach and grow on the surfaces of the scaffolds, and the adding of GO do not affect the cells' viability. Also, MC3T3‐E1 cells are likely to spread on the PVA/GO composite scaffolds. Above all, these unique features of the PVA/GO nanofibrous scaffolds prepared by electrospinning would open up a wide variety of future applications in bone tissue engineering and drug delivery systems. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013