Young drivers' optimism bias for accident risk and driving skill: Accountability and insight experience manipulations

This study aimed to determine whether two brief, low cost interventions would reduce young drivers’ optimism bias for their driving skills and accident risk perceptions. This tendency for such drivers to perceive themselves as more skilful and less prone to driving accidents than their peers may lead to less engagement in precautionary driving behaviours and a greater engagement in more dangerous driving behaviour. 243 young drivers (aged 17–25 years) were randomly allocated to one of three groups: accountability, insight or control. All participants provided both overall and specific situation ratings of their driving skills and accident risk relative to a typical young driver. Prior to completing the questionnaire, those in the accountability condition were first advised that their driving skills and accident risk would be later assessed via a driving simulator. Those in the insight condition first underwent a difficult computer-based hazard perception task designed to provide participants with insight into their potential limitations when responding to hazards in difficult and unpredictable driving situations. Participants in the control condition completed only the questionnaire. Results showed that the accountability manipulation was effective in reducing optimism bias in terms of participants’ comparative ratings of their accident risk in specific situations, though only for less experienced drivers. In contrast, among more experienced males, participants in the insight condition showed greater optimism bias for overall accident risk than their counterparts in the accountability or control groups. There were no effects of the manipulations on drivers’ skills ratings. The differential effects of the two types of manipulations on optimism bias relating to one's accident risk in different subgroups of the young driver sample highlight the importance of targeting interventions for different levels of experience. Accountability interventions may be beneficial for less experienced young drivers but the results suggest exercising caution with the use of insight type interventions, particularly hazard perception style tasks, for more experienced young drivers typically still in the provisional stage of graduated licensing systems.     

Effects of higher-order driving skill training on young, inexperienced drivers' on-road driving performance

The aim of the current study was to compare the effects of training in higher-order driving skills (e.g., perceptual, motivational, insight) and vehicle handling skill training in relation to on-road driving performance, hazard perception, attitudes to risky driving and driver confidence levels in young, inexperienced drivers. Thirty-six young drivers (23 males and 13 females, average age 16.3 years), mostly on a restricted NZ driver licence, participated in a Driver Training Research camp. Participants were randomly allocated to one of three equally sized groups according to the type of driving skill training (5 days) they received: higher-order, vehicle handling or control (no training). Professional driver assessors conducted a comprehensive driving assessment before (Baseline) and after the training (Post Training). At both time points, participants also carried out a computerised hazard perception task, and completed self-report questionnaires to assess attitudes to risky driving and driver confidence. In terms of on road driving, the participants who received higher-order driving skill training showed a statistically significant improvement in relation to visual search and the composite driving measure. This was accompanied by an improvement in hazard perception, safer attitudes to close following and to dangerous overtaking and a decrease in driving related confidence. The participants who received vehicle handling skill training showed significant improvements in relation to their on-road direction control, speed choice and the composite driving score. However, this group showed no improvement in hazard perception, attitudes to risky driving or driver confidence. The findings will be discussed in the context of driver training as a viable crash prevention intervention in regard to young, inexperienced drivers.     

Young drivers' decision making and safety belt use

Past research in safety belt use has primarily focused on describing the relationship between drivers’ demographic characteristics and safety belt use. This study compared the impact of situational factors (the direction of collision, the type of road, and the presence of an airbag system), demographic factors, and constructs (criteria) elicited from subjects regarding safety belt use. Based on the results obtained, a conceptual model was developed. The model indicated that drivers’ decision-making process when judging the level of accident risk and usefulness of safety belts differs from those that determine actual behavior. Perceived risk was related to road type, perceived consequences of an accident, perceived usefulness of safety belts, self responsibility, the time available for the driver to warn the other driver, dangerous behavior, and gender. These variables showed that people were able to rationally judge the risk. Despite the fact that people judge behavior in what appeared to be a rational manner, risk perception was not a good predictor of belt use. Belt use was mainly influenced by individual factors such as gender, grade point average (GPA), and age. Other factors impacting safety belt use included the perceived frequency of an accident and the S.D. of perceived usefulness of safety belts.     

The sensitivity of laboratory tests assessing driving related skills to dose-related impairment of alcohol: A literature review

Laboratory tests assessing driving related skills can be useful as initial screening tools to assess potential drug induced impairment as part of a standardized behavioural assessment. Unfortunately, consensus about which laboratory tests should be included to reliably assess drug induced impairment has not yet been reached. The aim of the present review was to evaluate the sensitivity of laboratory tests to the dose dependent effects of alcohol, as a benchmark, on performance parameters. In total, 179 experimental studies were included. Results show that a cued go/no-go task and a divided attention test with primary tracking and secondary visual search were consistently sensitive to the impairing effects at medium and high blood alcohol concentrations. Driving performance assessed in a simulator was less sensitive to the effects of alcohol as compared to naturalistic, on-the-road driving. In conclusion, replicating results of several potentially useful tests and their predictive validity of actual driving impairment should deserve further research. In addition, driving simulators should be validated and compared head to head to naturalistic driving in order to increase construct validity.     

Cognitive impairment and driving safety

As the populations of many countries continue to age, cognitive impairment will likely become more common. Individuals with cognitive impairment pose special challenges for families, health professionals, driving safety professionals, and the larger community, particularly if these older adults depend on driving as their primary means of community mobility. It is vital that we continue to extend our knowledge about the driving behavior of individuals’ with cognitive impairment, as well as try to develop effective means of screening and assessing these individuals for fitness to drive and help facilitate their transition to non-driving when appropriate. This special issue is intended to provide researchers and practitioners an opportunity to present the most recent research findings on driving-related issues among older adults with cognitive impairment. The issue contains 11 original contributions from seven countries. The topics covered by these papers are: crash risks; screening, assessment, and fitness to drive; driving performance using a driving simulator; and driving behaviors and driving-related decisions of people with cognitive impairments.     

Relationships between young drivers' personality characteristics, risk perceptions, and driving behaviour

Research has shown that inexperienced drivers underestimate the risks associated with a range of driving situations. In addition, personality factors are an important influence on both risk perceptions and driving behaviour. The study investigated the strength of relationship between personality factors, risk perceptions, and driving behaviour among young, mainly inexperienced drivers. One-hundred and fifty-nine students aged between 17 and 20 completed an online questionnaire assessing five facets of personality, four components of risk perceptions, and one measure of driving behaviour. Using structural equation modeling as a means of assessing the overall fit of each model, 39% of the variance in young drivers' speeding was accounted for by Excitement-Seeking, Altruism, their Aversion to Risk Taking, and their own likelihood of having an accident, with Altruism and Aversion to Risk Taking both showing moderate negative relationships. Road safety interventions should examine whether they strengthen young drivers' appreciation of the impact of their actions on others through positive reinforcement of altruistic norms.     

Novice drivers' accidents and violations--a failure on higher or lower hierarchical levels of driving behaviour

The study compared accident and offence rates of 28 500 novice drivers in Finland. The purpose was to study differences in accident and offence rates between male and female novice drivers of different age. The drivers reported in a mailed questionnaire, how many accidents they had been involved in and how much they had driven during their whole driving career. All the drivers had a driving experience of 6–18 months. Information about offences for a 2-year period was obtained from an official register of drivers' licences. The drivers were classified into three age brackets: 18–20, 21–30 and 31–50 years. The effect of driving experience was controlled by dividing the drivers into different mileage brackets. The data was analysed and the results were discussed in the framework of the hierarchical model of driving behaviour. Young novice drivers and especially young male drivers showed more problems connected to the higher hierarchical levels of driving behaviour than middle-aged novice drivers. The number of accidents and offences was highest among the young males and their accidents took place more often at night than female or older drivers' accidents. Female drivers showed more problems connected to the lower hierarchical levels of driving behaviour, e.g. problems in vehicle handling skills. Ways of measuring accident risk of different driver groups were also discussed, as well as the usefulness and reliability of self-reports in accident studies.     

Impaired driving and motor vehicle crashes among Swedish youth: an investigation into drivers' sociodemographic characteristics

Impaired driving is an important road safety problem, and the characteristics of drivers impaired by alcohol or drugs are relevant to targeted interventions. This study considers young drivers' sociodemographic attributes: age, sex, class of origin and educational attainment, based on a national cohort of young Swedish drivers (1988-2000) followed up in police registers for their first motor vehicle crash. Of all crashes reported for these drivers, 946 were where the driver was suspected of being under the influence of alcohol or other substances (corresponding to 6% of all first crashes). Impaired driving significantly increases the odds of severe and fatal injuries, regardless of sociodemographic attributes. Observed differences in the proportions of impaired drivers reveal significant excess risks among males, persons aged 18-19, those from households classified as "workers" and "others" (including, e.g. the long-term unemployed and those on long-term sick leave), and those with low educational attainment. Impaired driving is a risk factor in all sociodemographic strata among young people. Members of some groups are more likely to be found than others among impaired drivers on occasion of first motor vehicle crash.     

Investigating driving behaviour of older drivers with mild cognitive impairment using a portable driving simulator

While there is a large body of research indicating that individuals with moderate to severe dementia are unfit to drive, relatively little is known about the driving performance of older drivers with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). The aim of the current study was to examine the driving performance of older drivers with MCI on approach to intersections, and to investigate how their healthy counterparts perform on the same driving tasks using a portable driving simulator. Fourteen drivers with MCI and 14 age-matched healthy older drivers (aged 65–87 years) completed a 10-min simulator drive in an urban environment. The simulator drive consisted of stop-sign controlled and signal-controlled intersections. Drivers were required to stop at the stop-sign controlled intersections and to decide whether or not to proceed through a critical light change at the signal-controlled intersections. The specific performance measures included; approach speed, number of brake applications on approach to the intersection (either excessive or minimal), failure to comply with stop signs, and slower braking response times on approach to a critical light change. MCI patients in our sample performed more poorly than controls across a number of variables. However, because the trends failed to reach statistical significance it will be important to replicate the study using a larger sample to qualify whether the results can be generalised to the broader population.     

Development of student drivers' self-assessment accuracy during French driver training: Self-assessments compared to instructors' assessments in three risky driving situations

Promoting self-assessment accuracy among student drivers could help improve road safety for young novice drivers (Minimum Requirement for Driving Instructor Training, 2005). It is crucial to investigate the development of this ability in student drivers, although few studies have been conducted on this issue to our knowledge. The present study was aimed at examining the development of accuracy in student drivers’ self-assessments. Students’ self-ratings of their skills were compared to instructors’ ratings based on the students’ progression through the four steps of the French driver training course. The ratings were collected from two versions of an ad hoc questionnaire about students’ ability to turn right, overtake another vehicle, and turn left in driving situations. The questionnaire included a three-part assessment scale (six driving subtasks required to perform the maneuver, the number of driving subtasks managed simultaneously, and the student's autonomy), demographic data, and the students’ progress in the training program. The participants were 149 student drivers (58 men and 91 women) with a mean age of 22.2 years, and 38 professional driving instructors (36 men and 2 women) from 13 driving schools in Paris. The psychometric quality of the scale was satisfactory (α_s > .9) concerning the self-ratings as well as the instructors’ ratings in the three parts of the scale. As a whole and as expected, the self-ratings and the instructors’ ratings became increasingly positive as the training progressed, on each part of the assessment scale. The students’ and the instructors’ ratings did not differ significantly between the three driving situations tested, nor between male and female students in each training step. Furthermore, students’ overestimation of their driving skills was mainly observed on step 1, less on steps 2 and 3, but never on step 4. Thus, the students became rather aware of their current driving skills as the driver training course progressed. The results on the development of the self-assessment accuracy in driver training are discussed.     

Young novice driver subtypes: Relationship to driving violations, errors and lapses

The present study aimed to identify, in a large Italian sample of young, novice drivers, specific subtypes of drivers on the basis of combinations of self-reported personality traits (i.e., driving anger, anxiety, angry hostility, excitement-seeking, altruism, normlessness and driving locus of control) and to evaluate their high-risk driving behaviors not only in terms of traffic rule violations and risk-taking behaviors, but also in terms of driving errors and lapses as measured by the Manchester Driver Behavior Questionnaire. Participants were 1008 high school students between the ages of 18 and 23 years, with valid driver's licenses. On the basis of a cluster analysis of the personality variables, three easily interpretable driver subgroups were identified (risky drivers, worried drivers and careful drivers) that differed on self-reported accident involvement, attitudes toward traffic safety and risk perception, as well as on driving violations, errors, and lapses. The inclusion of internal and external driving locus of control, variables not previously considered in similar cluster studies, provided a relevant contribution to the final cluster solution. Further, the use of the Driving Behavior Questionnaire permitted the differentiation between deliberate deviations from safe driving practices and mistakes due to misjudgments or lapses in attention. This distinction was critical for understanding the behavior of each of the three identified subgroups of drivers, and for planning interventions to promote safe driving.     

Effects of enforcement intensity on alcohol impaired driving crashes

Background

Research measuring levels of enforcement has investigated whether increases in police activities (e.g., checkpoints, driving-while-intoxicated [DWI] special patrols) above some baseline level are associated with reduced crashes and fatalities. Little research, however, has attempted to quantitatively measure enforcement efforts and relate different enforcement levels to specific levels of the prevalence of alcohol-impaired driving.

Objective

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of law-enforcement intensity in a sample of communities on the rate of crashes involving a drinking driver. We analyzed the influence of different enforcement strategies and measures: (1) specific deterrence – annual number of driving-under-the-influence (DUI) arrests per capita; (2) general deterrence – frequency of sobriety checkpoint operations; (3) highly visible traffic enforcement – annual number of traffic stops per capita; (4) enforcement presence – number of sworn officers per capita; and (5) overall traffic enforcement – the number of other traffic enforcement citations per capita (i.e., seat belt citations, speeding tickets, and other moving violations and warnings) in each community.

Methods

We took advantage of nationwide data on the local prevalence of impaired driving from the 2007 National Roadside Survey (NRS), measures of DUI enforcement activity provided by the police departments that participated in the 2007 NRS, and crashes from the General Estimates System (GES) in the same locations as the 2007 NRS. We analyzed the relationship between the intensity of enforcement and the prevalence of impaired driving crashes in 22–26 communities with complete data. Log-linear regressions were used throughout the study.

Results

A higher number of DUI arrests per 10,000 driving-aged population was associated with a lower ratio of drinking-driver crashes to non-drinking-driver crashes (p = 0.035) when controlling for the percentage of legally intoxicated drivers on the roads surveyed in the community from the 2007 NRS. Results indicate that a 10% increase in the DUI arrest rate is associated with a 1% reduction in the drinking driver crash rate. Similar results were obtained for an increase in the number of sworn officers per 10,000 driving-age population.

Discussion

While a higher DUI arrest rate was associated with a lower drinking-driver crash rate, sobriety checkpoints did not have a significant relationship to drinking-driver crashes. This appeared to be due to the fact that only 3% of the on-the-road drivers were exposed to frequent sobriety checkpoints (only 1 of 36 police agencies where we received enforcement data conducted checkpoints weekly). This low-use strategy is symptomatic of the general decline in checkpoint use in the U.S. since the 1980s and 1990s when the greatest declines in alcohol-impaired-driving fatal crashes occurred. The overall findings in this study may help law enforcement agencies around the country adjust their traffic enforcement intensity in order to reduce impaired driving in their community.     

Combined effects of alcohol and distraction on driving performance

Although alcohol and distraction are often cited as significant risk factors for traffic crashes, most research has considered them in isolation. It is therefore necessary to consider the interactions between alcohol and distraction impairment sources, especially when examining the relationship between behavior and crash risk. In a driving simulator, the primary goal was to maintain a safe headway to a lead vehicle and the secondary goal was to maintain stable lane position. All participants engaged in distractions that represented different levels of resource competition and half of the participants consumed alcohol (target BAC 0.08 g/dl). Specific comparisons were made between sober driving while distracted and driving intoxicated without distraction. Distraction tasks produced more changes in driving behavior than did alcohol for both longitudinal (primary) and lateral (secondary) driving goals. Alcohol impairment was evident only in relation to lateral driving performance, however there was an amplification of impairment when alcohol and distraction conditions were combined. Distraction resulted in a general level of impairment across all driving goals, whereas participants with alcohol appeared to shed secondary driving goals to “protect” primary driving goals. Drivers’ strategies to cope with alcohol (and distraction) may not be sufficient to offset the increased crash risk.     

Self-rated driving performance among elderly drivers referred for driving evaluation

PURPOSE: To explore whether elderly drivers of varying driving skill levels (1) differ in their perception of their driving evaluation performance and (2) determine if self-rated driving evaluation performance is related to cognitive ability. METHODS: One hundred and fifty-two drivers aged 65 years or older and referred for a driving evaluation were enrolled into the study. Subjects were asked the question, "how well do you think you will perform today on your driving evaluation compared to others your own age?" Subjects also completed the Mini-Mental State Exam and a 30-min drive on a STISIM Drivetrade mark simulation (Systems Technology, Inc., Hawthorne, CA). Only 47 subjects completed both the simulated drive and self-rated item. RESULTS: Sixty-five percent of drivers rated themselves as performing better on a driving test than others of their age. Another 31.9% felt they would perform the same as others of their age on a driving test. A 50.0% of those considering themselves "a little better" and 52.9% of those considering themselves "a lot better" had an unsafe driving performance. As self-rated driving evaluation performance increased, there was a significantly increased risk of unsafe driving (p=0.02) in the study population. Drivers who considered themselves at least a little better than others of their age were over four times more likely to be unsafe drivers compared to others who believed they were comparable to or worse than other drivers of their age (RR=4.13, 95% CI=1.08-15.78). There was no significant difference in MMSE between self-rating groups (p=0.76). CONCLUSION: Older drivers assign high ratings to their driving performance, even in the presence of suspected skill decline. Cognitive ability was not related to self-rated driving evaluation performance.     

Effects of alcohol impairment on motorcycle riding skills

Alcohol intoxication is a significant risk factor for fatal traffic crashes; however, there is sparse research on the impairing effects of alcohol on skills involved in motorcycle control. Twenty-four male motorcycle riders between the ages of 21 and 50 were assessed on a test track with task scenarios based on the Motorcycle Safety Foundation's (MSF) training program. A balanced incomplete block design was used to remove confounding artifacts (learning effects) by randomizing four BAC levels across three test days. In general, intoxicated riders demonstrated longer response times and adopted larger tolerances leading to more task performance errors. Most of the alcohol effects were evident at the per se 0.08% alcohol level, but some of the effects were observed at the lower 0.05% alcohol level. The effects of alcohol on motorcycle control and rider behavior were modest and occurred when task demand was high (offset weave), time pressure was high (hazard avoidance for near obstacles), and tolerances were constrained (circuit track). The modest effects may be due to the study design, in which experienced riders performed highly practiced, low-speed tasks; alcohol at these levels may produce larger effects with less experienced riders in more challenging situations.     

Annual mileage, driving violations, and accident involvement in relation to drivers' sex, age, and level of education.

The paper presents results of some analyses on a Dutch database that contains disaggregated data on both the traffic system input variables of the driver population (characteristics of drivers, including their annual mileage) and the output variables of the driver population in terms of habitual driving behaviour (operationalised in number of fines) and accident involvement. Accidents increased as annual mileage increased. A relationship between violations and accidents turned out to exist in different classes of annual mileage. Moreover, multivariate analyses showed that--corrected for annual mileage--male and female drivers do not differ in accident involvement; younger drivers have the highest rate of accidents and level of education is not related to accident involvement.     

Taxi drivers' views on risky driving behavior in Tehran: a qualitative study using a social marketing approach

The use of the social marketing approach for public health issues is increasing. This approach uses marketing concepts borrowed from the principles of commercial marketing to promote beneficial health behaviors. In this qualitative study, four focus groups involving 42 participants were used in consumer research to explore taxi drivers’ views on the driving situation and the determinants of risky driving behaviors in Tehran, as well as to gather their ideas for developing a social marketing program to reduce risky driving behaviors among taxi drivers in Tehran, Iran.Participants were asked to respond to questions that would guide the development of a marketing mix, or four Ps (product, price, place and promotion). The discussions determined that the program product should involve avoiding risky driving behaviors through increased attention to driving. They pointed out that developing and communicating with a well-designed persuasive message meant to draw their attention to driving could affect their driving behaviors. In addition, participants identified price, place and promotion strategies. They offered suggestions for marketing nonrisky driving to the target audience.The focus group discussions generated important insights into the values and the motivations that affect consumers’ decisions to adopt the product. The focus group guided the development of a social marketing program to reduce risky driving behaviors in taxi drivers in Tehran, Iran.     

Recent evidence from scandinavia on deterring alcohol impaired driving

This paper summarizes the results of a number of studies of the effectiveness of control of drunken driving in Norway and Sweden. Econometric techniques are used for these evaluations within a simultaneous systems framework that takes account of variations in law enforcement effort, levels of alcohol consumption, and environmental effects that include indices of distance driven, vehicle mix and/or traffic density, and road quality. Effectiveness is measured in terms of the impact on fatal and serious injury accidents. Both cross-section and time series analyses have been conducted for periods in which legal statutes have remained relatively unchanged. Across all of the data sets involved there is a substantial unanimity supporting the hypothesis that increases in alcohol consumption levels are associated with higher accident levels and increases in law enforcement effort leading to a greater probability of sanctions will result in lower levels of fatal and serious injury accidents than would otherwise prevail.     

The contribution of alcohol to night time crash risk and other risks of night driving

Many studies show that driving at night is more risky in terms of crash involvements per distance travelled than driving during the day. The reasons for this include the more prevalent use of alcohol by drivers at night, the effects of fatigue on the driving task and the risk associated with reduced visibility. Although the consumption of alcohol prior to driving occurs most commonly at night, drink-driving is not inherently a night time risk factor. This study decomposes the New Zealand risk of driving at night into risk associated with alcohol and risk associated with inherently night time factors. The overall risk associated with alcohol use by drivers was shown to decrease with increasing age for the most risky situation analysed (male drivers on weekend nights). Given the levels of drinking and driving on weekend nights, the overall effect of alcohol was shown to contribute almost half of weekend night time risk for drivers aged under 40 on lower volume roads, but to contribute little to overall risk on higher-volume roads, consistent with other research showing that higher-volume roads are not favoured by drinking drivers. Risk at night relative to risk during the day (excluding risk associated with drinking and driving) was shown to decrease with age. Roads with illumination at night are less risky at night relative to during the day than roads without illumination. The risks estimated in this paper reflect the behaviour of the road users studied and their prevalence on the roads under the conditions analysed.     

Evaluation of a roadside impairment test device using alcohol

The main objective of this study was to compare the performance of a portable impairment test device known as roadside impairment testing apparatus (RITA) with the field impairment tests (FIT) that are used at the roadside by UK police. One hundred and twenty two healthy volunteers aged 18-70 years took part in this two-period crossover evaluation. The volunteers received a dose of alcohol and placebo, in the form of a drink, on separate days. Doses were calculated to produce blood alcohol concentrations of 90 mg/100 ml and RITA and FIT testing was carried out between 30 and 75 min post-drink. FIT was found to have a diagnostic accuracy of 62.7%. However, there was a substantial age effect for FIT scores, with volunteers aged over 40 showing failure rates on placebo similar to the failure rates on alcohol of younger volunteers. The accuracy of RITA was between 66 and 70%, not significantly higher than that of FIT. However, RITA did not show a marked age effect. Advantageously, this could result in fewer false positives being recorded if RITA were deployed at the roadside. Horizontal gaze nystagmus (HGN) was also investigated and posted an accuracy of 74%. The inclusion of HGN as one component of a UK roadside impairment test battery warrants further exploration with other drugs.