Drinking and driving among Mexican American and non-Hispanic white males in Long Beach,California

Although drinking and driving in the United States has declined substantially during the past two decades, this trend has not been seen among Hispanic drivers. Higher rates of driving while impaired (DWI) arrests and alcohol-related crashes, particularly among Mexican Americans, also have been noted. The extent to which this reflects a lack of understanding of DWI laws rather than a disregard for them is unknown. A survey was conducted among Mexican American and non-Hispanic white male DWI arrestees in Long Beach, California, to ascertain alcohol use, attitudes toward drinking and drinking and driving, and knowledge of DWI laws. The findings were compared with those of Mexican American and non-Hispanic white males recruited from the local community. Mexican American males, both DWIs and those from the community, reported heavier drinking than non-Hispanic white males. All four groups of respondents tended to underestimate the number of drinks needed to achieve the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) threshold at or above which it is illegal to drive under California law. Estimations were around 2-3 drinks rather than a more realistic estimate of 4-5 drinks. However, Mexican American DWIs and their comparison group vastly overestimated the number of drinks to make them unsafe drivers (8- 10 drinks). Furthermore, fewer than half were aware of the BAC threshold in California (0.08%) compared with between 60 and 78% of non-Hispanic whites. This study is limited in scope and needs to be replicated in other communities and with other racial/ethnic groups. However, the clear lack of knowledge of the DWI law in California and a lack of understanding of the relationship between number of drinks and BAC point to the need for culturally sensitive programs that are developed and implemented within the Mexican American community.     

What do Israeli Jewish and Arab adolescents know about drinking and driving?

This article describes a study, which is the first in Israel to investigate knowledge concerning drinking and driving among a large group of 2408 adolescents of four religions in the north of Israel, in the winter of 1995. The article analyses the results by referring to general scores and to five areas in the “drinking and driving” domain: legal blood alcohol concentration (BAC) limit, minimal number of drinks prohibited by the law before driving, common myths, main effects of alcohol on driving ability and youth vulnerability. The article emphasizes differences between the Jewish group and the non-Jewish (Arab) group. The average score of the sample was 2.06 (out of 5). Jews received the highest score (2.30) and Moslems got the lowest score (1.45). No differences were found among those who had a driving license and those who had not, and between the group of respondents from the north of Israel and a sample of participants from the center of the country. Lack of knowledge was revealed especially concerning knowledge about the BAC limit and youth vulnerability. Arabs tended to exaggerate the amount of drinks allowed to be consumed before driving according to the law, to hold common myths more than Jews and to get lower scores concerning alcohol main effects on driving skills. However, they tended to be more aware than Jews to youth vulnerability.     

Effect of lowering the alcohol limit in Denmark

On 1 March 1998, the Danish per se limit was lowered from 0.08 to 0.05% blood alcohol concentration (BAC) for motor vehicle drivers. Based on accident data and drivers' drinking habits before and after the amendment, the effect of the new limit has been evaluated. Interviews revealed a significant decrease in the number of drinks that drivers allow themselves to drink within a 2-h period before driving. The proportion of drivers, who would not drink at all or only have one drink, increased from 71% before the amendment to 80% after the amendment. Drivers with changed drinking habits most often stated the lower limit as the main reason for having less alcohol. However, based on accident data from the first year after the amendment, this has not resulted in a marked decrease in the proportion of injury accidents with impaired motor vehicle drivers (BAC>/=0.05%) compared to all injury accidents. On the contrary, the proportion of fatal accidents with drink-drivers compared to all fatal accidents has increased in the after-period. The total number of drink-driving sentences were a little larger in 1999 than in 1997 because of the lower limit, but a significant change from higher towards lower alcohol levels can be seen.     

Reduction of the blood alcohol concentration limit in Norway—Effects on knowledge,behavior and accidents

From January 1, 2001, the legal blood alcohol concentration (BAC) limit in Norway was reduced from 0.5 to 0.2 g/l. A before-and-after telephone survey concerning the effects of the reduced BAC limit was carried out. 3001 driver's license holders were interviewed before and after the amendment. The percentage of drivers claiming that they will drink no alcohol before driving has increased from 82 to 91 percent, thus the distinction between driving a motor vehicle and drinking alcohol has become clearer. Drivers influenced by alcohol and involved in accidents have on the average much higher BACs than 0.5 g/l. Statistics on alcohol-related accidents are not available for the years before and after the legal amendment, but single-vehicle night-time and weekend personal-injury and fatal crashes are used as surrogate measures. There are no significant decreases in these proxies from the six years before to the six years after the reductions of the legal limit.     

Drink driving as a social problem: comparing the attitudes and knowledge of drink driving offenders and the general community

Using data from a community survey together with data from a survey of drink-driving offenders, this paper compares the attitudes and knowledge of two matched samples on a number of drink driving issues. The total sample (149 offenders and 149 community sample respondents) were interviewed using a survey instrument containing a number of comparable questions. The offender sample were interviewed by trained interviewers in a face-to-face format, while the general community sample were interviewed using a computer aided telephone interview system. The specific issues dealt with include: a) knowledge of safe drinking and blood alcohol consumption (BAC) levels; b) attitudes towards strategies for avoiding drink driving; and c) general attitudes regarding drink driving. The analysis uses logistic regression to investigate the differences between the responses given by the two samples. The findings illustrate a number of significant differences in knowledge and attitudes between offenders and the general community.     

Police officers' detection of breath odors from alcohol ingestion

Police officers frequently use the presence or absence of an alcohol breath odor for decisions on proceeding further into sobriety testing. Epidemiological studies report many false negative errors. The current study employed 20 experienced officers as observers to detect an alcohol odor from 14 subjects who were at blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) ranging from zero to 0.130 g/dl. Over a 4 h period, each officer had 24 opportunities to place his nose at the terminal end of a 6 in. tube through which subjects blew. Subjects were hidden behind screens with a slit for the tube to prevent any but odor cues. Under these optimum conditions, odor was detected only two-thirds of the time for BACs below 0.08 and 85% of the time for BACs at or above 0.08%. After food consumption, correct detections declined further. Officers were unable to recognize whether the alcohol beverage was beer, wine, bourbon or vodka. Odor strength estimates were unrelated to BAC levels. Estimates of BAC level failed to rise above random guesses. These results demonstrate that even under optimum laboratory conditions, breath odor detection is unreliable, which may account for the low detection rate found in roadside realistic conditions.     

The alcohol-related accident risk in Germany: procedure, methods and results

This paper presents the first reliable estimation of the alcohol-related accident risk in Germany by comparing a representative sample of accidents to a representative sample of trips not leading to a crash. The information about the trips was taken from the German Roadside Survey 1992-1994 (n=9087) conducted in Unterfranken, part of Bavaria. These data were weighted according to a representative study of driving in Germany (KONTIV 89). The accident study comprises a representative sample of accidents in Unterfranken in 1993 (n=1968). Relating accident risk to BAC, the global risk function indicates an exponential increase of accident risk for BACs above 0.05%. Controlling for correlating factors leads to an overall lower estimation with, however, the same structure, indicating that alcohol is consumed by drivers in circumstances which further increase the risk introduced by alcohol. Analyzing the attributable risk (AR) shows that about 12% of all accidents are attributable to alcohol. Over 96% of these happen with BACs of 0.05% and above. Thus, measures aimed at reducing the alcohol-related accident risk must focus on larger BACs, especially of 0.08% and above.     

Hispanics, Blacks and White driving under the influence of alcohol: results from the 1995 National Alcohol Survey

OBJECTIVE: To report nationwide survey data on patterns of driving under the influence of alcohol among Whites, Blacks and Hispanics. METHOD: Data were obtained from a probability sample consisting of 1582 Blacks, 1585 Hispanics and 1636 Whites in the US household population. Interviews averaging 1 h in length were conducted in respondents' homes by trained interviewers. RESULTS: Self-reported rates of driving a car after having drunk enough 'to be in trouble if stopped by the police' were highest among White and Hispanic men (22 and 21%, respectively), as were lifetime arrest rates for driving under the influence of alcohol (13% for White men, 19% for Hispanic men). Additionally, our analyses suggest that drinkers who drive under the influence of alcohol are more likely to be men (regardless of ethnicity), consume more alcohol, and be alcohol dependent than drinkers who do not engage in alcohol-impaired driving.     

Retail alcohol monopolies, underage drinking, and youth impaired driving deaths

OBJECTIVE: To explore associations of state retail alcohol monopolies with underage drinking and alcohol-impaired driving deaths. DATA: Surveys on youth who drank alcohol and binge-drank recently and their beverage choices; census of motor vehicle fatalities by driver blood alcohol level. METHODS: Regressions estimated associations of monopolies with under-21 drinking, binge drinking, alcohol-impaired driving deaths, and odds a driver under 21 who died was alcohol-positive. RESULTS: About 93.8% of those ages 12-20 who consumed alcohol in the past month drank some wine or spirits. In states with a retail monopoly over spirits or wine and spirits, an average of 14.5% fewer high school students reported drinking alcohol in the past 30 days and 16.7% fewer reported binge drinking in the past 30 days than high school students in non-monopoly states. Monopolies over both wine and spirits were associated with larger consumption reductions than monopolies over spirits only. Lower consumption rates in monopoly states, in turn, were associated with a 9.3% lower alcohol-impaired driving death rate under age 21 in monopoly states versus non-monopoly states. Alcohol monopolies may prevent 45 impaired driving deaths annually. CONCLUSIONS: Continuing existing retail alcohol monopolies should help control underage drinking and associated harms.     

Evaluation of the effects of North Carolina's 0.08% BAC law.

This study was conducted to determine whether the lowered BAC limit for drivers in North Carolina resulted in fewer alcohol-related motor vehicle crashes. We used time-series analysis to examine several indicators of alcohol involvement in both injury and fatal crashes between 1991 and 1996. Data from NC crash files as well as the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) are used. We also examined several indicators used in previous research on lower BAC limits using a before-after design to compare North Carolina with 37 states that did not change their BAC limit for 24 months before and after the BAC limit was lowered. When controlling for the pre-existing downward trend in drinking driver crashes, along with other pertinent factors such as amount of travel and number of weekends per month, there was no evidence of either a significant shift or a change in the downward trend of alcohol-related crashes associated with the lowered BAC limit. In conclusion, although the lower BAC limit was actively enforced and a substantial proportion of drinkers were aware of the new BAC limit, the drinking-driving population in North Carolina, at the time the lower limit took effect in October 1993, was simply unresponsive to this change.     

Variations of alcohol impairment in different types, causes and contexts of injuries: results of emergency room studies from 16 countries

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this paper is to document alcohol impairment (based on a blood alcohol content (BAC) of at least 80 mg%) for different types, causes and location contexts of injuries. DESIGN AND SETTING: Data from 45 studies with 11,536 injury patients were merged to determine variations in the percent of alcohol impairment among injury patients. In each study, emergency room (ER) injury patients were given a short interview on the circumstances of their injury and BAC was measured. RESULTS: Injury severity, measured by number of body regions injured was significantly associated with BACs over 80 mg%. The highest percentage of injury type to involve alcohol was head injury/concussion. In terms of causes of injuries, patients with alcohol impairment were significantly more likely to be involved in violence than any other cause (i.e., vehicle, falling, poisoning or burns). Finally, injuries occurring at a bar or restaurant were significantly more likely to involve alcohol impairment than any other setting. CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrate considerable variation in the circumstances where alcohol is involved in injuries. These results may be useful for the development of prevention initiatives.     

A population-based study on the prevalence and correlates of drinking and driving in Hong Kong

To examine the prevalence and correlates of drinking and driving in Hong Kong, an anonymous, random telephone survey was conducted on 9860 Chinese adults (18-70 years of age) from April to June 2006. Trained interviewers administered a structured interview consisting of questions on socio-demographic information, drinking pattern, drink-driving, and motor vehicle accidents. The census age-standardized past-year prevalence of driving within 2 h of drinking was 5.2% among males and 0.8% among females. The prevalence across age showed an inverted U-shaped trend for males peaking at 8.2% between 41 and 45 years. For females the prevalence was fairly stable between the ages of 20 and 55. The past-year prevalence of alcohol-related motor vehicle accidents was 0.1%, with the majority being in the 26-30 age group. For males who drank, the prevalence of drinking and driving was 5.0% among those without problem drinking, 14.8% among binge drinkers, 37.1% among alcohol abusers and 22.4% among the alcohol dependent. For females who drank, the corresponding figures were all lower at 1.2%, 6.9%, 12.1% and 12.5%, respectively. Higher socio-economic status, weekly drinking, binge drinking and alcohol abuse were independently associated with higher likelihood of drinking and driving in both genders. Among drinking drivers, having a job that required drinking was the only predictor of having had a motor vehicle accident. The elevated prevalence of drinking and driving among alcohol abusers, binge drinkers and the alcohol dependent may portend higher population-level rates of alcohol-related motor accidents in the future since the prevalence of problem drinking has previously been noted to be increasing rapidly in Hong Kong.     

Identifying factors that increase the likelihood of driving after drinking among college students

Driving after drinking (DAD) is a serious public health concern found to be more common among college students than those of other age groups or same-aged non-college peers. The current study examined potential predictors of DAD among a dual-site sample of 3753 (65% female, 58% Caucasian) college students. Results showed that 19.1% of respondents had driven after 3 or more drinks and 8.6% had driven after 5 or more drinks in the past 3 months. A logistic regression model showed that male status, fraternity or sorority affiliation, family history of alcohol abuse, medium or heavy drinking (as compared to light drinking), more approving self-attitudes toward DAD, and alcohol expectancies for sexual enhancement and risk/aggression were independently associated with driving after drinking over and above covariates. These results extend the current understanding of this high risk drinking behavior in collegiate populations and provide implications for preventive strategies. Findings indicate that in addition to targeting at-risk subgroups, valuable directions for DAD-related interventions may include focusing on lowering both self-approval of DAD and alcohol-related expectancies, particularly those associated with risk/aggression and sexuality.     

Effects of THC on driving performance, physiological state and subjective feelings relative to alcohol

BACKGROUND: The effects of marijuana or THC on driving has been tested in several studies, but usually not in conjunction with physiological and subjective responses and not in comparison to alcohol effects on all three types of measures. OBJECTIVE: To assess the effects of two dosages of THC relative to alcohol on driving performance, physiological strain, and subjective feelings. METHOD: We tested the subjective feelings and driving abilities after placebo, smoking two dosages of THC (13 mg and 17 mg), drinking (0.05% BAC) and 24 h after smoking the high dose THC cigarette, while monitoring physiological activity of the drugs by heart rate. Fourteen healthy students, all recreational marijuana users, participated in the study. RESULTS: Both levels of THC cigarettes significantly affected the subjects in a dose-dependent manner. The moderate dose of alcohol and the low THC dose were equally detrimental to some of the driving abilities, with some differences between the two drugs. THC primarily caused elevation in physical effort and physical discomfort during the drive while alcohol tended to affect sleepiness level. After THC administration, subjects drove significantly slower than in the control condition, while after alcohol ingestion, subjects drove significantly faster than in the control condition. No THC effects were observed after 24 h on any of the measures.     

Young male drinkers and impaired driving intervention: Results of a U.S. telephone survey

The present study examines the role of interveners in the driving behavior of a group of drivers at higher risk for involvement in a fatal, alcohol-related motor vehicle accident than the general population, based on their demographic characteristics. The sample consisted of men, aged 21–34 years, living in areas where alcohol-involved motor vehicle fatalities most commonly occur. More than one-half (55%) of these men reported having been the target of an intervention to prevent them from drinking and driving. The variables most strongly associated with having been the target of an intervention were: involvement in an accident after drinking; frequency of driving after drinking too much to drive safely; binge drinking; reporting that it takes ten or more drinks to feel drunk. Age, total alcohol consumption and the relationship between the target and the intervener predicted intervention success. Persons who have close relationships with drinking drivers, particularly wives/girlfriends, are most likely to be successful in preventing these men from drinking and driving. To the extent they can be encouraged to safely intervene, wives/girlfriends and close friends may be potential targets for messages promoting informal social control of drinking and driving.     

DWI enforcement programs: why are they not more effective?

Enforcement-oriented countermeasure programs to prevent alcohol-related fatal crashes in the United States have not been more effective because they have been based on a number of misconceptions. It is widely believed that (a) 50% of all traffic deaths involve alcohol, (b) alcohol-related fatal crashes are part of a continuum beginning with the minor fender bender, (c) one-third of all fatal crashes are caused by problem drinkers, (d) all problem drinkers, heavy drinkers in general and youth who drink are high-risk drivers and (e), that those arrested for DWI are of the same population as those involved in alcohol-related fatal crashes. It is further believed that mass arrests for DWI would reduce the number of alcohol-related fatal crashes.A review of the literature reveals that the proportion of all fatal crashes involving alcohol in some causal fashion is closer to 30% than to 50%, that relatively few alcoholics are high-risk drivers and that it is not alcohol alone that leads to crash involvement but alcohol in combination with such characteristics or conditions as alienation, hostility, aggression, and/or transient traumatic experiences.Mass arrests for DWI have not been effective in preventing alcohol-related deaths. The frequency of impaired driving episodes is believed to be of such magnitude and the relative likelihood of involvement in an alcohol-related fatal crash is so low that current DWI enforcement programs are regarded as inefficient means to prevent alcohol-related deaths. Recommendations to define the problem more clearly are presented.It is concluded that, if fatal crashes are the problem of concern (as opposed to the use of alcohol), the focus of research must be turned from drinking (per se) to the behavior, characteristics or conditions that precede or accompany fatal crashes, only some of which are triggered or exacerbated by alcohol. This approach would not only focus attention on the estimated 30% of all fatal crashes that involve alcohol, but on the other 70% as well.     

Alcohol use in relation to driving records among injured bicyclists

To prevent alcohol-related occupational mishaps, employers often conduct background checks on prospective employees for history of driving while intoxicated (DWI) and driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI) to screen out candidates with drinking problems. Few studies, however, have examined the pervasive nature of drinking behavior across activity domains. Based on trauma registry data, we constructed a historical cohort of 120 Maryland residents ages 18 years or older who were injured while riding a bicycle between 1990 and 1997. Driving records for the 120 bicyclists for the 3 years between May 6, 1995 and May 5, 1998 were obtained from the state motor vehicle administration and were analyzed in relation to BAC-positive status at the time of injury. Bicyclists with positive BACs at the time of admission to the trauma center were significantly more likely than those with negative BACs to have a record of license suspension/revocation (52% vs 14%, P < 0.01) and to have DWI/DUI convictions (30% vs 3%, P < 0.01). Despite the modest sample size, this study provides compelling evidence of the pervasive nature of risky drinking between bicycling and driving activities.     

The effect of alcohol, THC and their combination on perceived effects, willingness to drive and performance of driving and non-driving tasks

Background

Driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) is one of the main causes of car accidents. Alcohol and marijuana are the most popular drugs among recreational users. Many classify these drugs as “Light” drugs and therefore allow themselves to drive after consuming them.

Objective

The study had two main objectives: 1) to investigate the effect of alcohol (BAC = 0.05%), THC (13 mg) and their combination on driving and non-driving tasks. 2) to investigate the extent to which people are willing to drive based on their subjective sensations and their perceived effects of the drugs.

Method

7 healthy men and 5 healthy women, ages 24-29, all recreational users of alcohol and marijuana, completed 5 experimental sessions. Sessions included: drinking and smoking placebo, drinking alcohol and smoking placebo, drinking placebo and smoking THC, drinking alcohol and smoking THC, drinking placebo and smoking placebo 24 hours after drinking alcohol and smoking THC. Three types of measures were used: subjective perceptions (with questionnaires), performance parameters of the driving and non-driving tasks (arithmetic task and a secondary target detection task) and physiological changes (heart rate).

Results

Overall, the combination of alcohol and THC had the most intense effect after intake. This effect was reflected in performance impairments observed in the driving and non-driving tasks, in the subjective sensations after intake, and in the physiological measures. Despite significant differences in the size of the effects after the various treatments, there were no differences in the distances subjects were willing to drive while under the influence on each of the treatments.     

Marihuana and driving among teenagers: Reported use patterns,effects, and experiences related to driving

Forty-nine per cent of 1271 incoming college freshmen reported using marihuana during the previous year. A majority of marihuana users simultaneously consume alcohol at least on occasion, and many of them have enough alcohol at those times to be impaired by the alcohol alone. Among users who smoke weekly or more often one-quarter of driving while “high” occurs under the combined effect of marihuana and medium to heavy alcohol use. Most users reported marihuana effects on driving judged to be hazardous, such as altered attention, vision or time perception.     

Primary prevention of drink driving by the large-scale use of alcolocks in commercial vehicles

Alcolocks are commercial breath test devices that prevent a motor vehicle from starting when a driver's blood alcohol concentration (BAC) is elevated. This report is an evaluation of the experiences and BAC data from the first use of alcolocks in commercial vehicles as a primary prevention strategy. In most applications, the alcolock is imposed only after an impaired driving conviction. This study, implemented in Sweden, estimates drink driving on a large scale in a variety of commercial vehicles. Officials from 118 companies were interviewed representing 3689 alcolock-equipped vehicles used by 9614 professional drivers, an 80% compliance rate. In a contrast group of 230 transport businesses without alcolocks the interview compliance rate was 57%. Survey results probed motivation for and experience with alcolocks. Analysis of BAC test patterns showed alcohol consumption among employees through prevalence estimates of drink-driving attempts at the rate of BAC> or =the legal limit 0.020%. Before alcolock installation, 64% of the employers suspected alcohol problems among their employees and their motive for installing alcolocks (cost averaged 1700 euro/vehicle) was to improve the transport quality. Several companies had technical problems with the alcolocks; but 98% recommended that other companies install alcolocks. Among 600, heavy vehicles, 0.19% of all starts were prevented by elevated BAC; most during weekends and mornings. Daytime Saturday and Sunday mornings 0.72% of the drivers had elevated BAC. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of drink driving among professional drivers is probably similar to that among drivers in general. Alcolocks would improve the safety margin and reduce public risk. Provided that the entire fleet of trucks, buses, and taxis in Sweden had installed alcolocks that would correspond to about half a million drink driving trips being prevented every year.