循环温度范围对Ti-6-22-22合金热机械疲劳行为的影响

采用拉压对称的机械应变控制,研究了Ti-6-22-22合金在200～400℃和200～520℃两个温度范围的热机械疲劳(TMF)行为.结果表明,在200～400℃内,同相和反相热机械疲劳寿命均高于400℃等温疲劳寿命;在200～520℃范围,反相热机械疲劳寿命明显低于520℃等温疲劳寿命.在两个温度范围内,热机械疲劳的循环应力都与相应等温疲劳的循环应力响应有关.纵向剖面金相观察表明,520℃时等温疲劳表面的裂纹更长.循环温度范围扩大导致环境破坏作用增强是热机械疲劳具有明显破坏作用的原因.     

NiAl（Fe）合金组织和拉伸性能的研究

采用光学显微镜、扫描电镜（ＳＥＭ）、透射电镜（ＴＥＭ）、电子探针（ＥＰＭＡ）、Ｘ射线（ＸＲＤ）和选区电子衍射分析（ＳＡＥＤ）研究了ＮｉＡｌ（Ｆｅ）合金的显微组织及拉伸性能。结果表明，铸态ＮｉＡｌ（Ｆｅ）合金经均匀化退火后的组织由β及β＋γ＇相组成。韧性相γ＇相能阻止裂纹扩展，有利于改善合金的室温塑性。比较发现，Ｎｉ５０Ａｌ２０Ｆｅ３０合金具有最佳的室温塑性，其拉伸断口由β相的解理断口和β＋γ＇相的     

Cu对Fe基非晶合金内禀磁性及晶化行为的影响

利用ＤＳＣ，ＸＲＤ，ＴＥＭ，Ｍｏｓｓｂａｕｅｒ谱及磁性测量技术研究了Ｃｕ取代Ｆｅ对ＦｅＳｉＢ非晶合金的内禀磁性及晶化行为的影响。结果表明：Ｃｕ元素取代Ｆｅ使ＦｅＳｉＢ非晶合金的λｓ，σｓ，Ｈｆ，μＦｅ下降，但居里温度Ｔｃ升度。而且，Ｃｕ的加入能够显著地降低ＦｅＳｉＢ非晶合金的晶化温度及晶化激活能，改善αＦｅ（Ｓｉ）相的形貌。ＦｅＣｕＳｉＢ非晶合金的晶化行为表明：在非晶合金内部存在αＦｅ（Ｓｉ）相成     

机械球磨法制备纳米晶Fe73.5Cu1Nb3Si13.5B95的结构研究

对Ｆｅ７３．５Ｃｕ１ｎｂ３Ｓｉ１３．５Ｂ９成分的母合金进行了机械球磨，并对不同时间的球磨样品进行了Ｘ射线衍射（ＸＲＤ）和Ｍｏｓｓｂａｕｅｒ谱（ＭＳ）的测量，结果表明样品难以完全非晶化，形成了无序的αＦｅ－Ｓｉ固溶体的纳米晶，晶粒尺寸在５ｎｍ左右，同时共存一部分富集Ｎｂ，Ｂ元素的界面非晶相。在各种球磨条件下对αＦｅ－Ｓｉ固溶体中的Ｓｉ含量进行了计算。     

热作模具钢在高温热机械应力循环下的疲劳断裂行为

研究了热作模具钢在应力控制下的等温疲劳和同相热机械疲劳寿命，发现在相同的应力幅下，同相热机械疲劳寿命低于上限温度的等温疲劳寿命。通过研究疲劳过程中的循环应变响应和疲劳断口特征时发现，等温疲劳条件下，滞后环朝压缩方向发展，疲劳裂纹主要为穿晶萌生与扩展；在热机械疲劳条件下，滞后环朝拉伸方向发展，疲劳裂纹主要沿晶萌生与扩展。这是导致同相热机械疲劳寿命低于等温疲劳的主要原因。     

镍基高温合金GH4169的热机械疲劳行为

在不同温度区间、不同条件下进行GH4169合金的热机械疲劳实验测试其热机械疲劳数据,研究了这种合金的热机械疲劳行为。结果表明：GH4169合金在热机械条件下的迟滞回线具有明显的拉压不对称性;同相位时材料承受压应力,反相位时承受拉应力。拉应力,是影响疲劳寿命的主要因素。应变幅较高时GH4169合金出现平均应力松弛,在高温半周为先循环软化后循环稳定,在低温半周始终趋于循环稳定。     

热孔法表征特种高分子合金超滤膜的孔径

用热分析方法（ＤＳＣ）对磺化聚砜（ＳＰＳＦ）与聚醚酮（ＰＥＫ）高分子合金超滤膜的孔径和孔结构进行了研究。由实验得到热谱图，经计算得到不同合金比（ＳＰＳＦ／ＰＥＫ）的超滤膜孔径及孔径体积分布。研究结果表明，在一定条件下，ＳＰＳＦ／ＰＥＫ以不同的比例混合时，其膜的孔径分布范围在５￣１５ｎｍ，平均孔径在６￣９ｎｍ之间；当合金比（ＳＰＳＦ／ＰＥＫ）等于或大于４：６时，所制得的超滤膜对聚乙二醇（ＰＥＧ，Ｍｗ     

永磁合金Nd（Fe,Mo）12氮化过程

研究了氮原子在Ｎｄ（Ｆｅ，Ｍ）１２合金中的扩散行为，测定了扩散温度，时间与样品平均氮含量的关系，计算氮原子在Ｎｄ（Ｆｅ，Ｍ）１２合金中的扩散频率因子Ｄ０和扩散激活能Ｅａ运用扩散Ｆｉｃｋ第二定律计算了氮原子在Ｎｄ（Ｆｅ，Ｍ）１２粉末颗粒内部的分布，理论计算与实验结果一致。     

Ti811合金棒材的热稳定性能和蠕变性能

系统地研究了合金成分Ａｌ含量、拉应力和温度对Ｔｉ８１１合金棒材热稳定性能的影响，对合金的蠕变性能也进行了定性研究。结果表明：Ａｌ含量降低、应力和温度升高，则残余变形量增大；４２５℃／１００ｈ／４１０ＭＰａ热暴露，Ａｌ含量大于８（ｗｔ％）时，合金的热稳定性塑性急剧降低；不高于４７５℃暴露（０～４７５℃／１００ｈ／４１０ＭＰａ）以及４２５℃不同应力热暴露（０～４９０ＭＰａ／１００ｈ／４２５℃），合金具有较好的热稳定性。采用ＳＥＭ和ＴＥＭ技术分析了性能改变的原因。     

固溶温度对OOCr26Ni8Mo3Ti不锈钢组织和力学性能的影响

对ＯＯＣｒ２６Ｎｉ８Ｍｏ３Ｔｉ不锈钢在不同固溶处理状态下的组织结构和力学性能进行了研究，试验结果表明，当固溶温度９５０～１０００℃时，由于组织有害σ相（ＴＣＰ）的存在，使其力学性能呈现出典型的σ相脆性特征，而固溶温度为１０５０℃时，合金的组织为Ｆ相（ｂｃｃ）＋Ａ相（ｆｃｃ），σ相消失，所以合金具有强度高，塑性，韧性好等优良的综合力学性能，当因溶温度分别为１１００℃和１１５０℃时，合金几乎为单相Ｆ组     

Fatigue and fracture assessment for reliability in electronics packaging

Modern electronics products relentlessly become more complex, higher in density and speed, and thinner and lighter for greater portability. The package of these products is therefore critical. The reliability of the interconnection of electronics packaging has become a critical issue. In this study, the novel testing methods for electronic packaging are introduced and failure mechanisms of electronic packaging are explained. Electronics packaging is subjected to mechanical vibration and thermal cyclic loads which lead to fatigue crack initiation, propagation and the ultimate fracture of the packaging. A small-sized electromagnetic-type bending cycling tester, a micro-mechanical testing machine, and thermal fatigue testing apparatus were specially developed for the reliability assessment of electronics packaging. The long-term reliability of an electronic component under cyclic bending induced high-cycle fatigue was assessed. The high-cycle bending-fatigue test was performed using an electromagnetic-type testing machine. The time to failure was determined by measuring the changes in resistance. Using the micro-mechanical tester, low cycle fatigues were performed and compared with the results of a finite element analysis to investigate the optimal shape of solder bumps in electronic packaging. Fatigue tests on various lead-free solder materials are discussed. To assess the resistance against thermal loads, pseudo-power cycling method is developed. Thermal fatigue tests of lead-containing and lead-free solder joints of electronic packaging were performed using the pseudo-power cycling tester. The results from the thermal fatigue tests are compared with the mechanical fatigue data in terms of the inelastic energy dissipation per cycle. It was found that the mechanical load has a longer fatigue life than the thermal load at the same inelastic energy dissipation per cycle.     

A novel C-free Co-based alloy for high temperature tooling applications

The principle failure mechanism in thixoforming dies is thermal fatigue as the mechanical loading is modest owing to a mushy feedstock. A novel C-free Co-based alloy was submitted to thermal cycling under conditions which mimic thixoforming of steels. The eutectic carbides, typical of Stellite alloys, are replaced in this alloy with Mo-rich coarse secondary phase particles dispersed predominantly at interdendritic sites. Its response to thermal cycling is remarkable with at least a threefold service life extension with respect to the Stellite 6 alloy, identified to be the best die material for steel thixoforming until today. The superior thermal fatigue performance of the present alloy is attributed to its resistance to high temperature oxidation, to a Co-based matrix free of brittle carbides and to its potential to retain its mechanical strength at elevated temperatures.     

Fracture mechanics analysis of the effect of substrate flexibility on solder joint reliability

Solder joint fatigue failure is a serious reliability concern in area array technologies, such as flip chip and ball grid array packages of integrated-circuit chips. The selection of different substrate materials could affect solder joint thermal fatigue life significantly. The reliability of solder joints in real flip chip assembly with both rigid and compliant substrates was evaluated by the accelerated temperature cycling test and thermal mechanical analysis. The mechanism of substrate flexibility on improving solder joint thermal fatigue lifetime was investigated by fracture mechanics methods. Two different methods (crack tip opening displacement, CTOD and virtual crack closure technique, VCCT) are used to determine the crack tip parameters which are considered as the indices of reliability of solder joints, including the strain energy release rate and phase angle for the different crack lengths and temperatures. It was found that the thermal fatigue lifetime of solder joints in flip chip on flex assembly (FCOF) was much longer than that of flip chip on rigid board assembly (FCOB). The flex substrates could dissipate energy that otherwise would be absorbed by solder joints, that is, substrate flexibility has a great effect on solder joint reliability and the reliability improvement was attributed to flex buckling or bending during thermal cycling.     

Einfluss von Randschichtzustand und Haltezeit auf die thermische Ermüdung der Magnesiumbasislegierung AZ31

In this paper thermal fatigue of magnesium base alloy AZ31 in the temperature range between +50°C and +290°C is investigated. Experiments were carried out under constant total deformation (out‐of‐phase loading) and the resulting stress amplitudes as well as the plastic strain amplitudes were recorded as a function of the number of thermal loading cycles. In particular the consequences of mechanical surface treatments (deep rolling) and of hold‐times were investigated. In both cases no particular influence compared with untreated specimens loaded without hold‐times was observed, which is due to the interaction of deformation and recrystallization processes during thermal fatigue.     

Analysis of manufacturing effects on fatigue failure of an automotive component using finite element methods

In this study, the fatigue life of an automotive suspension component was analysed using finite element methods with regard to stamping and welding effects. Because automotive suspension components are produced by forming and welding sheet metal, there are various effects on the final product, such as uneven thickness distribution, residual stresses and weld notches. Manufacturing effects may change the mechanical performance of the automotive components; therefore, it is desirable to consider these effects in the early design stage. Residual stresses due to work hardening and thermal deformation were investigated through process simulation. The redistribution and relaxation of residual stresses in a component were investigated in fatigue life analysis under a cyclic loading condition. Various equivalent relaxation curves were investigated and one was selected after comparisons with test results. The fatigue simulation results were compared to the test results; a good correlation between the two was achieved for the residual stress effects in terms of life cycles and failure locations. The simulation results also show that welding produces more detrimental effects than stamping with regard to the fatigue life of a component.     

Fatigue behavior of thin Au and Al films on polycarbonate and polymethylmethacrylate for micro-optical components

The thermal and mechanical fatigue behavior of thin metal films on polymer substrates has been investigated and compared for different combinations of materials, which are typical for micro-optical components: gold or aluminum film deposited on PolyCarbonate (PC) or PolyMethylMethAcrylate (PMMA) substrate. Mechanical fatigue testing has been carried out using an experimental setup, which allows for testing in an equi-biaxial loading condition, mimicking the strain state of the film during thermal cycling. Using scanning electron microscopy, fatigue damage morphologies for the different film/substrate combinations have been found to be quite different for both thermal and mechanical cycling. Furthermore, our results indicate a somewhat lower resistance of the films deposited onto PMMA as compared to PC to both thermal and mechanical fatigue. Under mechanical loading, Au/PC specimens show a longer time to failure as compared to the Al/PC specimens.     

Effect of initial hardness on the thermal fatigue behavior of AISI H13 steel by experimental sand numerical investigations

Based on the Uddeholm thermal fatigue test, the mechanism of thermal fatigue crack initiation and propagation and the influence of initial hardness on the thermal fatigue behavior of AISI H13 steel were investigated. Furthermore, an electromagnetic‐thermo‐mechanical coupled finite element model was established to analyze the temperature evolution and stress accumulation in specimen during thermal cycles. The experimental results demonstrate that, after 3000 thermal cycles, the surface hardness of specimen markedly decreases, and the lath martensite structure seems to completely evolve into a mixture of ferrite and irregularly sphere‐like and bar‐like M23C6 and M6C carbides. According to the numerical results, the effective stress of specimen will increase slightly after every thermal cycle. It presents a distinct stress accumulation phenomenon with increasing number of thermal cycles. Especially at the corner of specimen, it is more significant. The thermal fatigue test results also prove that it is a major site where the initiation and propagation of thermal fatigue primary cracks occur. Both the numerical and experimental results suggest that specimen with initial hardness of 46HRC has the slowest stress accumulation rate, the lowest thermal fatigue damage factor, and the longest thermal fatigue life.     

A new energy‐based isothermal and thermo‐mechanical fatigue lifetime prediction model for aluminium–silicon–magnesium alloy

In this paper, a new fatigue lifetime prediction model is presented for the aluminium–silicon–magnesium alloy, A356.0. This model is based on the plastic strain energy density per cycle including two correction factors in order to consider the effect of the mean stress and the maximum temperature. The thermal term considers creep and oxidation damages in A356.0 alloy. To calibrate the model, isothermal fatigue and out‐of‐phase thermo‐mechanical fatigue (TMF) tests were conducted on the A356.0 alloy. Results showed an improvement in predicting fatigue lifetimes by the present model in comparison with classical theories and also the plastic strain energy density (without any correction factors). Therefore, this model is applicable for TMF, low cycle fatigue (LCF) and both TMF/LCF lifetimes of the A356.0 alloy. Furthermore, this model can be easily used for the estimation of thermo‐mechanical conditions in components such as cylinder heads.     

THERMAL FATIGUE UNDER MULTIAXIAL STRESSES

Thermal fatigue under multiaxial stresses has been investigated. Circular cylindrical specimens were tested under thermal fatigue which was in-phase with axial mechanical fatigue loading. The axial forces on the specimens were varied throughout the test programme, but all the temperature cycles were identical, so various biaxial stress and strain ratios were obtained. Straight thermal fatigue cracks occurred in different directions and also net-like crazes in various patterns were observed on the surfaces of the specimens. The transient temperature, stress and strain fields have been calculated with a thermal elasto-plastic Finite Element Method. Comparing test results with calculations, it appears that the patterns of thermal fatigue cracks are dependent on the stress state and the plastic strain state, not on the strain state. The direction of cracks is perpendicular to the maximum principal stress and the maximum plastic strain. Net-like thermal fatigue crazes will occur when one principal stress is about the same as the other one and one plastic strain component is approximately equal to another.     

Crack initiation and crack propagation under thermal cyclic loading

Theoretical and experimental investigations of crack initiation and crack propagation under thermal cyclic loading are presented. For the experimental investigation a special thermal fatigue test rig has been constructed in which a small circular cylindrical specimen is heated up to a homogeneous temperature and cyclically cooled down under well defined thermal and mechanical boundary conditions by a jet of cold water. At the end of the cooling phase the specimen is reheated to the initial temperature and the following cycle begins. The experiments are performed with uncracked and mechanically precracked specimens of the German austenitic stainless steel X6CrNi 1811.

In the crack initiation part of the investigation the number of load cycles to initiate cracks under thermal cyclic load is compared to the number of load cycles to initiate cracks under uniaxial mechanical fatigue loading at the same strain range as in the cyclic thermal experiment. The development of initiated cracks under thermal cyclic load is compared with the development of cracks under uniaxial mechanical cyclic load.

In the crack propagation part of the investigation crack growth rates of semi-elliptical surface cracks under thermal cyclic loading are determined and compared to suitable mechanical fatigue tests made on compact-tension and four-point bending specimens with semi-elliptical surface cracks. The effect of environment, frequency, load shape and temperature on the crack growth rate is determined for the material in mechanical fatigue tests.

The theoretical investigations are based on the temperature distribution in the specimen, which is calculated using finite element programs and compared to experimental results. From the temperature distribution, elastic and elastic-plastic stress distributions are determined taking into account the temperature dependence of the material properties. The prediction of crack propagation relies on linear-elastic fracture mechanics. Stress intensity factors are calculated with the weight function method and crack propagation is determined using the Paris relation.

To demonstrate the quality of the crack growth analysis the experimental results are compared to the prediction of crack propagation under thermal cyclic load.