On Interpreting Research on Stereotype Threat and Test Performance.

The authors comment on the comments (see records 2005-03019-016; 2005-03019-017; 2005-03019-018) made on their original article entitled On Interpreting Stereotype Threat as Accounting for African American-White Differences on Cognitive Tests (see record 2004-10043-001). The authors welcome the thoughtful insights of Wicherts, Helms, and Cohen and Sherman, and they hope that these comments stimulate further critical analysis of methodological issues associated with stereotype threat research. The authors do not dispute that stereotype threat is a real phenomenon or that it remains a potentially important contributor to the racial achievement gap. They encourage researchers to continue their efforts to determine what role stereotype threat plays in contributing to that gap, especially in real-world testing situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Natural Resilience and Innate Mental Health.

Comments on George Bonanno's article entitled Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? (see record 2004-10043-003). The author notes that Bonanno's article on loss, trauma, and resilience represents another important step toward pointing psychology in a more positive and fruitful direction. Bonanno was right; psychologists have dramatically underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events. More important, psychologists have also failed to realize that the human capacity for resilience, highlighted by Bonanno, is natural and normal, part and parcel of the innate health built into all human beings. Bonanno concluded from his review of the research on grieving and posttraumatic stress disorder that resilience to interpersonal loss and traumatic events is common and represents healthy adjustment. This conclusion points to the existence of an innate human psychological immune capacity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Has Resilience to Severe Trauma Been Underestimated?

Comments on George Bonanno's article entitles Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? (see record 2004-10043-003). The author notes that Bonanno articulated a model of loss and trauma-related resilience cogently and evocatively. In the trauma field, there is a new focus on risk and resilience factors across the life span (e.g., King, Vogt, & King, 2004), and the article by Bonanno will serve as a herald for this new way of thinking about adjustment to trauma and loss. Because the author believes that the most important function of Bonanno's article should be to stimulate theory development and research in this burgeoning area, he raises three issues in service of that goal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Schizophrenia and the immediacy mechanism.

The author comments on the article "The primacy of cognition in schizophrenia," by R. W. Heinrichs (see record 2005-03019-003) and states that to the pursuit of schizophrenic/normal differences, there is no end. Heinrichs used meta-analyses to argue persuasively for the primacy of cognition for this role. His conclusion not only elicited agreement from both researchers and practitioners, but it is supported by his quantitative estimate of those differences through the use of meta-analysis and the associated effect sizes. An interesting question is why cognitive behavior should be so effective in differentiating schizophrenia patients from normal persons. The current author believes one answer is that cognitive behavior involves complex stimulus control. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Self and object in the postmodern world": Response to Gene Bocknek’s letter.

Responds to Gene Bocknek's comments (see record 2009-17405-001) on the author's original article "Self and object in the postmodern world" (see record 1997-04589-001). While acknowledging Bocknek's comments in regard to his original article, the author maintains the position that he cannot find any disagreement between their viewpoints on the features of ego and the self. However, he does acknowledge that there is real disagreement between them on the subject of the intrapsychic versus interpersonal school or the ongoing discussion as to whether psychotherapy concerns a one-person or a two-person psychology. After restating his position on this matter, the author concludes by extending his appreciation to Bocknek for his comments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Immediacy, emotion, and the filling of glasses: Next round's on you.

In this article, I respond to comments made by K. Salzinger (see record 2006-00920-010) and A. Aleman and A. S. David (see record 2006-00920-011) on my original article (see record 2005-03019-003). The constructive, reconstructive, and interpretive nature of human cognition is well illustrated by these two responses to my recent article on schizophrenia. In the original article, I used meta-analytic summaries of the published literature to show that a majority of schizophrenia patients are distinguishable from healthy people on the basis of standard tests of cognitive ability. I also showed that commonly reported brain-imaging findings lack this discriminating power, at least in terms of variables that lend themselves to meta-analytic synthesis. I went on to discuss influences, from brain disturbance to stress to endophenotypes, that may underpin the sensitivity of cognitive performance to schizophrenia. Neither Salzinger nor Aleman and David disputed the meta-analytic evidence I presented. Instead, they have their own rather oblique takes on my findings and advocate research not included in the quantitative summaries or related discussion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conceptual Clarifications in the Study of Resilience.

Comments on George Bonanno's article entitled Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? (see record 2004-10043-003). The authors note that Bonanno's article on loss, trauma, and human resilience serves an important function for the field in drawing attention to the pseudoscientific mythologies that have grown up around brief normative (loss-related) and nonnormative (traumatic) stressors. As the author rightly pointed out, traditional assumptions regarding the absolute necessity of "grief work" in the case of loss and clinical debriefing following exposure to traumatic events may indeed be overdrawn (and overprescribed) in light of emerging evidence. Although there is much to like about Bonanno's analysis, several limitations inherent in the author's conceptualization of resilience are troubling in light of the history of developmental research in this area, much of which is cited in the target article. In essence, Bonanno defined adult resilience as an individual's capacity to resist maladaptation in the face of risky experiences (e.g., "stress resistance"). Although this is one plausible way of conceptualizing resilience, it is by no means an exclusive definition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Human Capacity for Growth Through Adversity.

Comments on George Bonanno's article entitled Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? (see record 2004-10043-003). The authors are encouraged by Bonanno's recognition of the human potential for resilience following adversity and his call for psychologists to pay greater attention to this capacity rather than simply focus on psychopathology. This approach parallels recent trends within psychology toward a more "positive psychology," as championed by former American Psychological Association President Martin Seligman. However, it fails to recognize research trends within the traumatic stress literature, which have increasingly pointed toward the capacity not just for resilience but also for people to use aversive events as a springboard for further growth and development. In this comment, the authors argue that the real paradigm shift needed in dealing with loss and trauma is not simply to include resilience (i.e., the absence of psychopathology). Rather, psychologists should seek to develop an understanding of reactions to adversity that explains the full range of reactions, from psychopathology, through resilience, to adversarial growth. Here they review the main points made by Bonanno (2004) within the context of the adversarial growth literature before presenting a brief overview of a new theory of adversarial growth that addresses these salient considerations, explaining the three possible outcomes of psychopathology, resilience, and adversarial growth following loss and trauma. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological Processes and "The Staircase to Terrorism"

Replies to the comments of Paniagua (see record 2005-15840-016) and Steiner (see record 2005-15840-015) on his original article (see record 2005-01817-002) on terrorism. The author notes that several points raised by Paniagua and Steiner are insightful and help to broaden the range of factors to be considered on the staircase to terrorism. Steiner highlights the role of incitement, and this points to the importance of both research and policies for better understanding, monitoring, and combating voices for hate. Paniagua points out that a number of extremist leaders are not open to negotiation, suggesting that when attempting negotiation with individuals who have reached the final levels of the staircase to terrorism, authorities must selectively try different policies with different terrorist groups and leaders. The author also notes that a subtle but profound theme links the other major points made by the two: that Islamic terrorism is different and has to be treated as a separate phenomenon. Steiner implies this with reference to what he sees as a long history of conflict between the West and the Islamic World; Paniagua suggests this by placing terrorism by various major "terrorist organizations" in the category of political terrorism and depicting political terrorism as different from Islamic terrorism. Both of these observations are intriguing, but they should not distract psychologists from the foundational psychological processes that underlie terrorist thought and action. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clarification on Psychological Treatments and Psychotherapy.

In this article, the author responds to a set of comments (see record 2005-11834-009; 2005-11834-010; 2005-11834-011) on his original article, "Psychological Treatments" (see record 2004-21168-001). The author responds to each comment. Hal Arkowitz (2005) misread the proposed distinction between "psychological treatments" and "psychotherapy" by presuming that the author was implying that the former is evidence based and the latter is not. Kwekkeboom et al. (2005), representing the nursing profession, noted quite correctly that nurses often deliver psychological treatments on the frontlines of primary care and are independently licensed to provide nursing services, including many approaches that could be categorized as "psychological." Ahmed and Boisvert (2005) agreed that psychological treatments are a core strength of psychology and also go on to provide additional interesting examples and to identify other areas of practice in which psychologists may be uniquely qualified. Overall, the author notes that only certain well-defined pathologies will be included in any health care system, and treatment for these conditions will increasingly need to be based on evidence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evolutionary Psychology and False Confession.

Comments on Kassin's review (see record 2005-03019-002) of the psychology of false confessions. The authors note that Kassin's review makes a compelling argument for the need for legal reform in police interrogation practices. Because his work strikes at the heart of the American criminal justice system--its fairness--the value of Kassin's empirical points cannot be understated. Here, the authors offer a complementary model of the psychology of false confession, one that articulates many of Kassin's insights through the language of evolutionary psychology. They argue that false confessions are the result of specific social dynamic events that trigger evolved heuristics of information management that were designed to maximize our ancestors' genetic replicative success. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The neglected 95%, a challenge to psychology.

Responds to the comments of LoSchiavo F. M. and Shatz M. A. (see record 2009-13007-013); Webster G. D., Nichols A. L., and Schember T. O. (see record 2009-13007-014); Stroebe W. and Nijstad B. (see record 2009-13007-015); and Haeffel et al. (see record 2009-13007-016) on the author's original article (see record 200814338-003) regarding the assertion that American psychology focuses too narrowly on Americans while neglecting the other 95% of the world’s population. The author indicates that the four comments were well chosen in that they represent quite different reactions to his article. In this rejoinder the author addresses the issues raised in each of the comments, first the two supporting comments and then the two opposing comments. Following this, he addresses the more general problem that cuts across the comments: American psychology’s dominant philosophy of science. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender similarities still rule.

Replies to comments made by Archer (see record 2006-11202-012), Lippa (see record 2006-11202-013), and Davies and Shackelford (see record 2006-11202-014) on the current author's original article (see record 2005-11115-001). The current author addresses the criticisms put forth by each of these commenting authors, and concludes that the best available scientific evidence continues to support the gender similarities hypothesis, that males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Applied psychology in action: Reply to Dr. Wells and to miss Epstein.

Comments on an article by F. L. Wells titled Comment on word meaning (1954) and an article by Mary Epstein titled A note on "the non-directive approach in advertising appeals' (1954); both of these articles comment on the current author's original article (see record 1955-01709-001). The author notes that Dr. Wells is correct in his analysis; the author should have used credulity in his original article. As for Epstein's comments, she is somewhat correct when she says that the non-interference principle is not applicable to advertising. If there were no "interference," there would be no selling. However, doesn't a patient have an attitude towards the therapist at the end of the sessions? Actually, there is no pure example of inferred advertising. In the end, it is the atmosphere created by the advertisement that is important. Direct-inferred, directive-nondirective, are more logical constructs than useful tools. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A new vision of personality...and of personality theory: Reply.

Replies to comments by Maddi (see record 2006-05893-007) on "A Tale of Two Visions: Can a New View of Personality Help Integrate Psychology?" (see record 2005-05480-001). In the original article, the current author proposed a new fieldwide framework for the discipline of personality psychology; in essence, it is a new outline to organize contemporary theory and research in the field. Maddi raised two interrelated objections to that proposed framework. First, he believes that there is a better way to organize the discipline of personality psychology than the one the current author proposed. His method involves comparing and analyzing the grand theories of personality and using the results of his analyses to guide research in the discipline. Maddi's (1968) meta-theory usefully organizes the statements of the grand theories of the early-to-mid-20th century, but the current author is not sure it is sufficient to organize the field. Second, he was concerned that the current author wants to de-emphasize the grand theories of the field. Maddi (2006) believes that disagreements among the grand theories are a fruitful source of research ideas. Although that may be true, there is more to personality psychology than the grand theories alone. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"How anti-gay bias compromised a treatment: A commentary on Meissner (2006)": Reply.

Responds to the comments made by Michael C. Singer (see record 2008-00996-012) on the current author's original article, "Time on my hands: The dilemma of the chronically late patient" (see record 2006-20697-003). The current author states "I am grateful to Dr. Singer for his interest and stringent criticism. However, in reading his commentary I had the odd feeling that I was being caustically attacked for views expressed in an article I did not write. However, perhaps the deficiency is mine in that my expression failed to achieve an adequate level of clarity and precision." The author regrets that he could not write an article to suit Dr. Singer's tastes, and that in the article he did write there were unavoidable gaps and deficiencies in the material because of the time constraints and distortions in the analysis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reply to Messick and Jackson's comments on authoritarianism or acquiescence.

The author replies to comments made by Messick and Jackson (see record 1959-05766-001) on his original article "Authoritarianism or Acquiescence" (see record 1957-02534-001). The author states that in light of Messick and Jackson's corrections, for which the author is grateful, and subsequent independent studies on the same subject, it appears that the hypothesis advanced in in "Authoritarianism or Acquiescence" was more satisfactory than the analysis used to test the hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On melding psychometric science and clinical acumen in neuropsychological assessment: Reply to Snow and Hynd.

Responds to the comments of J. Snow and G. Hynd (see record 1984-30457-001) on inappropriate approaches to neuropsychological test profiles. The present author contends that he noted their objections in his original article (see record 1982-27041-001); it is suggested that the criticism reflects a general neglect of basic concepts (e.g., empirical evaluation of clinical interpretation) that are relevant to assessment in neuropsychology. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reply to Levy and to Zaidel.

Responds to J. Levy's (see record 1984-07813-001) and E. Zaidel's (see record 1984-07231-001) comments on the present author's (see record 1984-07149-001) review of right-hemisphere language in split-brain patients. The present author replies to Levy's issues-oriented criticisms in which Levy contended that Gazzaniga characterized the right hemisphere as passive and subhuman; Gazzaniga denies this. The present author then responds to Zaidel's comments by reiterating his belief that there is no right-hemisphere profile for natural language. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reply to Stagner.

This is written in response to Ross Stagner's comments (see record 2005-11890-003) concerning the publication of books of readings. First, it is my experience that it is far easier to author a book than edit readings. I don't assume that people who write the original articles that finally find themselves in a book of readings are any more creative than the editors. I don't know how much of a reputation any one gets from authorship or editing a readings book. As for "good solid cash" (to use Stagner's words) I have yet to see some and my experience is not unique. I have paid out a considerable amount of money in secretarial fees alone. If I recoup the money I have expended I will be fortunate. As for so-called profits, if I send one copy of the book to each author and his co-author(s) who contributed an article for a book of readings--well, there goes the "good solid cash." Second, there are many articles that are rescued from the scrap pile by a book of readings. My suggestion is that after the editor of a readings book recoups his expenses in preparing the book, copies of the book be sent to clinics or libraries which are on a limited budget. Copies may even be sent to some of the "underprivileged nations." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)