Furan and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural removal from high- and low-moisture foods

Foods with different moisture and fat contents (i.e. meat sauce and biscuits) were subjected to treatments at 4, 12 and 19 kPa for increasing lengths of time to remove furan and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). The vacuum treatments were ineffective in removing HMF from both food types, as well as furan from the biscuits, unless this food was preliminary hydrated at high water activity. However, the vacuum treatments allowed furan to be removed from the high moisture food. In particular, 67% furan removal from the meat sauce was achieved by applying 12 kPa for 10 min. Sensory analysis results showed that meat sauce subjected to such a treatment presented the same odor intensity of the untreated sample. The post-process vacuum treatment could represent a reliable strategy to mitigate the furan levels in high moisture foods.     

Acrylamide reduction in potato chips by using commercial asparaginase in combination with conventional blanching

In this research acrylamide reduction in potato chips was investigated in relation to blanching and asparaginase immersion treatments before final frying. Potatoes slices (Verdi variety, diameter: 40 mm, thickness: 2.0 mm) were fried at 170 °C for 5 min (final moisture content of ∼2.0 g/100 g). Prior to frying, potato slices were treated in one of the following ways: (i) Rinsing in distilled water (control I); (ii) Rinsing in distilled water plus blanching in hot water at 85 °C for 3.5 min; (iii) Rinsing in distilled water plus immersion in an asparaginase solution (10000 ASNU/L) at 50 °C for 20 min; (iv) Rinsing in distilled water plus blanching in hot water at 85 °C for 3.5 min plus immersion in an asparaginase solution (10000 ASNU/L) at 50 °C for 20 min; (v) Rinsing in distilled water plus blanching in hot water at 85 °C for 3.5 min plus immersion in distilled water at 50 °C for 20 min (control II). Blanching in hot water (ii) was almost as effective as asparaginase potato immersion (iii) in order to diminish acrylamide formation in potato chips (acrylamide reduction was ∼17% of the initial acrylamide concentration). When potato slices were blanched before asparaginase immersion, the acrylamide content of the resultant potato chips was reduced considerably by almost 90%. We have demonstrated that blanching of potato slices plus asparaginase treatment is an effective combination for acrylamide mitigation during frying. It seems to be that blanching provokes changes in the microstructure of potato tissue leading to an easier and more effective diffusion of asparaginase.     

Acrylamide in thermal-processed carbohydrate-rich foods from Chinese market

ABSTRACT

Acrylamide content in food market in China was determined with the goal to evaluate related health concern. In this survey, products of rice, potato corn, wheat as well as dried fruit slices and instant foods were analysed. All these types of thermal-processed carbohydrate-rich foods were frequently consumed in China. They were purchased from markets in Zhejiang province and analysed using a liquid chromatography tandem/mass spectrometry method. Acrylamide was detected in 94.3% of 105 investigated samples, ranging from 10 to 3649 μg/kg with an average value of 231 μg/kg and a median of 114 μg/kg. In this study, high levels were found in potato products (564 ± 285 μg/kg), corn products (524 ± 187 μg/kg) and instant foods (180 ± 35 μg/kg) while low levels were measured in rice products (82 ± 17 μg/kg), wheat products (96 ± 29 μg/kg) and dried fruit slices (83 ± 13 μg/kg).     

Acrylamide in potato crisp—the effect of raw material and processing

Reducing sugars and free amino acids were analysed in slices from three potato cultivars before and after blanching (0-3 min). The potato crisps were deep fried at 185 °C for different times (3-8.5 min), and analysed for the concentration of acrylamide (AA) and moisture. Potato cultivar and the temperature during processing were important parameters for AA formation in potato crisps. The amount increased with an increase in the processing time. Blanching before deep-frying reduced the concentration of free asparagine and reducing sugar in the raw material. We found no effect of blanching as pretreatment on the concentration of AA in the potato crisps. Any relationship was not detected between the levels of asparagine in the different cultivars, before and after blanching, and the formation of AA in the crisp products. However, it was shown that the content of reducing sugars determined the level of AA after frying.     

Acrylamide and methylglyoxal formation in potato chips by microwaving and frying heating

In our present paper, the effect of important α‐dicarbonyl compounds of methylglyoxal on the formation of acrylamide was quantified in potato chips systems. Methylglyoxal was regarded as the main α‐dicarbonyl compound, and its formation was detected by HPLC method. There heating methods were used to study the effect on acrylamide formation. The results showed that microwaving treatment could form more acrylamide compared with frying method. After 2 min of microwaving treatment at 700 W, the acrylamide content was sharply increased from 1.77 ± 0.37 to 72.93 ± 0.72 μmol kg^?1. Microwaving treatment would promote the formation of methylglyoxal compared with frying treatment at 160 and 180 °C in potato chips. A typical linear growth curve prepared by plotting acrylamide levels vs. methylglyoxal content formed under different heating condition was observed: y = ?41.33 + 0.17x (r = 0.965). This study revealed for the first time that there is a significant correlation between methylglyoxal and acrylamide in potato chips, thus confirming the important role of dicarbonyls in the formation of acrylamide in potato chips.     

Verification of the findings of acrylamide in heated foods

We report here the first confirmation of the recent Swedish findings of acrylamide in heated foods. The verification exercise used an LC-MS/MS method developed for the purpose as well as an established GCMS method for acrylamide analysis. LC-MS/MS was suitable for the direct determination of acrylamide in aqueous extracts of foods by isotope dilution mass spectrometry (IDMS) using triply deuterated acrylamide. Some food matrices were not suited to the new method and mixed-mode solid-phase extraction (SPE) was used to clean these extracts. The foods tested included UK versions of some of the key food groups analysed in Sweden. Also tested were some foods heated under home-cooking conditions. There was good agreement between the LC-MS/MS results and the GC-MS results and the levels of acrylamide found here were similar to those reported for the corresponding foods analysed in the Swedish study. The analyses confirmed that acrylamide is absent from the raw or boiled foods but present at significant levels in fried, grilled, baked and toasted foods. The highest result was 12000 μg kg -1 acrylamide in overcooked oil-fried chips.     

In GC-MS, acrylamide from heated foods may be coeluted with 3-hydroxy propionitrile

Using the widely applied GC-MS method for direct analysis of acrylamide in heated foods, 3-hydroxy propionitrile (3-HPN) may be coeluted with acrylamide causing falsely high acrylamide values. Since it is often virtually the only peak in the gas chromatogram, such coelution is unexpected. 3-HPN was found in pears, apples, plums and tomatoes, independently of whether these were heated; in a sample of pears it quantitated as 2,800 μg/kg apparent acrylamide. Breakfast cereals, muesli and bakery ware with fruits may contain 3-HPN. The problem can be solved by tuning the chromatographic conditions to separate the two components or by a stationary phase other than the Carbowaxes usually used.     

基于TRIZ理论的油炸薯片中丙烯酰胺含量的测定

根据TRIZ创新理论,提出一种新的油炸薯片中丙烯酰胺含量的测定方法.计算机视觉系统中的图像采集装置每间隔1 min采集刚炸好薯片的双面图像,在Lab颜色空间中,用提出的图像滤波、分割和颜色测量算法从双面图像中提取目标薯片、测量整体薯片的颜色平均值,同时对相应薯片中的丙烯酰胺含量值做气相色谱-质谱法测定.对数据进行分析,发现薯片双面a平均值和其丙烯酰胺含量值之间有很强的相关性(R2=0.971),建立了两者之间的线性回归方程.利用所提出的方法测定市场上出售的10个不同品牌薯片的丙烯酰胺含量值,与标准化学方法测定值之间的最大相对误差仅为4.94％,说明该方法准确可行.     

Acrylamide in deep-fried snacks of India

Acrylamide content in deep-fried snacks from 20 different production sites of South Indian province of Kerala (80 samples representing 4 important product categories) were determined using a modified high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)–diode array detector (DAD) method. The limit of detection and the limit of quantification for this method were 1.04 and 3.17 μg/kg, respectively. The mean recoveries of acrylamide obtained by using spiked samples ranged between 90% and 103%, which shows good extraction efficiency. Acrylamide concentrations in the four groups of snacks ranged from 82.0 to 4245.6 µg/kg for potato chips, 46.2–2431.4 µg/kg for jack chips, 24.8–1959.8 µg/kg for sweet plantain chips and 14.7–1690.5 µg/kg for plantain chips. These are the most widely consumed snacks in South India, and the results revealed reasonable levels of acrylamide in these foods, which indicated the general risk of consumer exposure.     

Acrylamide levels and dietary exposure from foods in the United States,an update based on 2011-2015 data

ABSTRACT

Acrylamide is a contaminant that can form in certain plant-based foods during high-temperature cooking. From 2011–2015, the Food and Drug Administration conducted extensive sampling and analyses of acrylamide in foods, as a follow-up to surveys from 2002–2006. We compared acrylamide occurrence data and exposure estimates based on 2011–2015 data with data and exposure estimates from 2002–2006. Acrylamide levels in selected food categories generally did not decrease significantly in 2011–2015 compared with 2002–2006. However, significant decreases in acrylamide concentrations were observed for potato chips and crackers, which may be related to the availability and use of mitigation techniques for reducing acrylamide in foods. Mean dietary intake for those 2 years and older based on 2011–2015 data was 0.36 µg/kg bw/day, comparable to the 0.44 µg/kg bw/day reported by FDA in 2006. French fries and potato products, breakfast cereal, cookies, potato chips, and crackers continue to be the greatest contributors to dietary intake of acrylamide. Infant snack foods were identified as an important contributor to acrylamide intake relative to infant jarred foods. The continued presence of acrylamide in food suggests that manufacturers and governments should continue to pursue efforts to reduce acrylamide in foods that are important contributors to acrylamide intake.     

Study of colour and acrylamide formation in coffee,wheat flour and potato chips during heating

The effects of heating on colour generation measured as CIE colour space parameters of L* a* b* and acrylamide formation were studied in various food matrices including green coffee, wheat flour and potato chips at different temperatures. Changes in both the acrylamide concentration and the redness parameter a* during heating at relatively higher temperatures followed a typical kinetic pattern in which an initial increase to an apparent maximum followed by a subsequent decrease was observed. The similarities between the changes in acrylamide and redness parameter a* during heating revealed that colour may be a reliable indicator of acrylamide levels in thermally processed foods. The overall results suggest that both acrylamide and redness parameter a* form as intermediate products during Maillard reaction. Since an apparent decrease was observed in its level during prolonged heating at certain temperatures, prediction of acrylamide level in foods during processing should be based on realistic reaction mechanism, instead of simple linear regression model.     

Determination of acrylamide in potato chips by a reversed-phase LC–MS method based on a stable isotope dilution assay

Potato-based products represent an important part of the daily intake of food-derived acrylamide, mainly on adolescent population from western countries. A reversed-phase liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry based on a stable isotope dilution assay was used for acrylamide analysis. Aqueous sample extraction, cleaning with Carrez solution and solid phase extraction with methanol was applied. The ratio potato/NaCl solution is critical during extraction where the optimum ratio is 0.125 g/ml NaCl 2 M solution. The use of virgin olive oil, as retaining matrix, during methanol desiccation was critical to achieve high recoveries. The method performance was validated for limit of detection (23.2 μg/kg) and quantitation (91.8 μg/kg), linearity (r > 0.999, 25–1000 μg/kg), recovery (98.8%). The method was applied on commercial potato chips; the intra-day repeatability was set at 3.9% and values were corrected with a labeled internal standard (¹³C₃-acrylamide). No significant differences on the acrylamide content were observed between industrial-scale and local-scale processed potato chips.     

Computer vision-based image analysis for the estimation of acrylamide concentrations of potato chips and french fries

In this study, digital colour images of fried potato chips and french fries were analyzed to estimate acrylamide levels based on the correlation with analyses using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. In fried potato images, bright yellow (Region 1), yellowish brown (Region 2) and darker brown (Region 3) regions were clearly visible, having different kinds of image pixels with characteristic mean values of red, green and blue components. Pixels of the fried potato image were classified into three sets (Set 1, Set 2 and Set 3) by means of semi-automatic and automatic segmentation. There was a strong correlation between acrylamide concentration and NA2 value, which is defined as the number of pixels in Set 2 divided by the total number of pixels of the entire fried potato image. To verify the applicability of this approach, a linear regression equation was used to estimate the acrylamide concentrations of a number of commercial potato chips and home-made french fries. Mean differences between the measured and predicted acrylamide concentrations were found to be +4 ± 14% and −14 ± 24% for commercial potato chips and home-made french fries, respectively.     

Modelling the effect of asparaginase in reducing acrylamide formation in biscuits

The influence of asparaginase on acrylamide formation, as well as colour development, in short dough biscuits was studied. In particular, asparaginase concentration, incubation time and temperature were changed according to an experimental design. As acrylamide formation was found to vary significantly between biscuits obtained by using the same ingredients and process, a mixed effect model was used to model variation of acrylamide concentration. By contrast a fixed effect model was used for colour polynomial analysis. Within the range of study, the overall results allowed the best conditions for minimising acrylamide formation to be found. It can be suggested that acrylamide development was at a minimum at intermediate asparaginase concentrations, as well as at the lowest time and temperature of incubation. Asparaginase addition did not significantly affect the colour of the final product, although the quadratic term of the incubation temperature did slightly.     

食品中丙烯酰胺形成机理的研究进展

综述了当前研究富含淀粉的食品在油炸、煎炸和焙烤等高温加工工艺形成丙烯酰胺的几种可能的反应机理.目前获得的公认研究结果是:天冬酰胺酸与还原糖发生美拉德反应,是大量的丙烯酰胺形成的主要途径;另外食品中的油脂、蛋白质和碳水化合物等成分在高温下条件下反应,生成丙烯醛,进而形成丙烯酰胺,是其在食物中存在的另一原因.本文希望通过揭示高温食品中丙烯酰胺形成的机理,能促进关于食品中有效地抑制/消除丙烯酰胺形成研究的进一步开展.     

On-line monitoring of fat,dry matter and acrylamide contents in potato chips using near infrared interactance and visual reflectance imaging

The contents of dry matter, oil and acrylamide are some of the most relevant parameters in the quality control of potato chips. Near infrared spectroscopy (NIR) is a common technique for routine analysis of bulk chemistry in different raw materials and products because it allows a fast and non-destructive analysis of samples. The objective of this research was to investigate the possibilities of using on-line NIR monitoring of acrylamide, moisture and oil content in potato chips. Sixty samples of potato chips from individual frying runs were measured on-line using a VIS/NIR interactance line scanner. The same samples were analysed in the laboratory to determine their corresponding moisture, acrylamide and oil contents. The mean VIS and NIR spectra for the 60 samples were modelled against the reference values for acrylamide, fat and dry matter using partial least squares regression (PLSR), and the regression models were validated using full cross-validation. On-line NIR interactance was found to predict fat and dry matter of potato chips with high accuracy, i.e. prediction errors of 0.99 and 0.86% (w/w), respectively. The corresponding correlations between predicted values and reference values were 0.99 and 0.97 for fat and dry matter. For acrylamide an average prediction error of 266 μg/kg was achieved using NIR and VIS signals in combination. The correlation between predicted values and reference values was 0.83 for this model. The system may be used to separate samples with very high acrylamide contents from samples with average to low contents.     

Acrylamide in almond products

Acrylamide was determined in 86 different almond products, such as roasted almonds, almond-containing bakery products, raw almonds, and marzipan. The highest acrylamide concentrations were found in dark roasted almonds, while only moderate acrylamide contents were determined in bakery products. Roasting experiments under different process conditions showed that acrylamide increases with time and that temperature has a much stronger effect on acrylamide formation than time. During roasting reducing sugars are consumed faster and to a larger extent than free asparagine, suggesting that the content of reducing sugars may be a critical factor for acrylamide formation in roasted almonds. Acrylamide was found to decrease in roasted almonds during storage at room temperature.     

食品中丙烯酰胺的毒理学研究现状

为了解食物中丙烯酰胺对人体健康的影响，综述了食物中丙烯酰胺的来源及影响因素，人群通过食品的丙烯酰胺暴露量评估（吸烟、食品和职业暴露），丙烯酰胺生物转化和排泄以及毒性研究的现状。     

Effect of formulation on the capacity of l-asparaginase to minimize acrylamide formation in short dough biscuits

The influence of the matrix composition and structure on the capacity of asparaginase to reduce acrylamide formation in biscuits was studied. In particular, formulations differing for water (10 to 20% on total weight) and fat (0 to 15% on total weight) content, fat type (margarine, palm oil) and lipid phase distribution were considered. In the latter case, palm oil was substituted with a monoglyceride–palm oil–water gel (hydrogel). The results showed that high water contents, by favoring precursor mobility, promoted acrylamide formation as well as the enzyme capability of reducing the toxic molecule levels in the final product. On the contrary, the presence of fat significantly reduced acrylamide development and enzyme activity as compared with the fat free formulation. It can be hypothesized that the presence of fat would hamper the interaction between the precursors in the aqueous phase, leading to lower amounts of acrylamide. By substituting fat with hydrogel, the biscuit behaved as a fat free system, where acrylamide formation as well as its reduction by means of asparaginase activity was higher than in the fat-containing biscuits. It is likely that the inclusion of palm oil in the dough through the hydrogel modified the system morphology, thus not hampering the encounter among reactants and consequently favoring acrylamide formation.     

Reducing the acrylamide content of a semi-finished biscuit on industrial scale

The baking agent, reducing sugars and organic acids are the ingredients that most influence the acrylamide formation in sweet bakery. Various experiments focusing on these components were performed with biscuits on industrial scale. The replacement of ammonium hydrogencarbonate by sodium hydrogencarbonate reduced the acrylamide content by about 70%. The use of a sucrose solution instead of inverted sugar syrup had a similar effect. Addition of some extra tartaric acid reduced the acrylamide content by about one-third. The positive effects on the acrylamide content were still observed after a second baking process. These results show that mitigation in industry-scale based on the optimization of baking agent, reducing sugars, and organic acid is feasible and compliant to high-quality standards.