Effects of drying methods on assay and antioxidant activity of xanthones in mangosteen rind

Rind of mangosteen is one of the best natural sources of xanthones, which have been reported to have high antioxidant activity. In many cases mangosteen rind must be dried prior to extraction of the active compounds. However, information on the effects of different drying methods and conditions on the retention of xanthones in mangosteen rind is still very limited. This work was therefore aimed at studying the effects of selected drying methods and conditions on the changes of the contents as well as the antioxidant activity of xanthones in mangosteen rind. Mangosteen rind was subject to hot-air drying, vacuum drying or low-pressure superheated steam drying (LPSSD) at 60, 75 and 90 °C and in the case of sub-atmospheric drying methods at an absolute pressure of 7 kPa. The xanthones contents were analysed by HPLC, while their antioxidant activity was assessed by DPPH radical scavenging capacity and ABTS assays. The results showed that the drying methods significantly affected degradation of xanthones (i.e., α-mangostin and 8-desoxygartanin) and their antioxidant activity. Either hot-air drying or LPSSD at 75 °C is proposed as an appropriate drying technique and condition to preserve xanthones in mangosteen rind.     

Effects of drying methods and plasticizer concentration on some physical and mechanical properties of edible chitosan films

In order to alleviate shortcomings of edible chitosan films, which are rigid and brittle in nature, an idea of using advanced drying methods, in combination with appropriate concentration of plasticizer, to improve the mechanical properties of the films was proposed and tested. Physical (thickness and color) and mechanical (tensile strength and percent elongation) properties of edible chitosan films plasticized at four glycerol concentrations (0%, 25%, 75% and 125% w/w chitosan) and prepared by three drying methods, namely, hot air drying (≈40 °C), vacuum drying and low-pressure superheated steam drying (LPSSD) (90 °C, 10 kPa) were investigated. Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) was used to determine the glass transition temperature to verify the compactness of edible chitosan films. It was found that the drying methods and plasticizer concentration significantly affected the drying time, tensile strength, percent elongation and glass transition temperature of the films. On the other hand, the drying methods and plasticizer concentration did not affect the thickness and final moisture content of the film samples at lower glycerol concentrations. In the cases of vacuum drying and LPSSD, there was a limiting value of plasticizer concentration (25% w/w) beyond which the effect of the plasticizer concentration on the mechanical properties was negligible. In all cases, the color of all tested films was not significantly different.     

Effect of spray drying and storage on the stability of bayberry polyphenols

Bayberry juice was spray dried with maltodextrin (DE 10) as a carrier and then stored under different temperature and water activities (aw). The retention of the total phenolic content (TPC) and total anthocaynins (ACN) during the drying process were about 96% and 94%, respectively, suggesting spray drying was a satisfactory technique for drying heat sensitive polyphenols. Under an aw of 0.11–0.44, the TPC and ACN in bayberry powders decreased by about 6–8% and 7–27%, respectively, after 6 months storage at 4 °C; at 25 °C for the same storage period the decreases were between 6–9% and 9–37%, respectively, while at 40 °C the decreases were in the range 7–37% and 9–94%. The anthocyanin component was more readily degraded relative to other phenolic compounds. The results suggest that bayberry powder should be stored at less than 25 °C and aw of 0.33, on account of greater polyphenol stability under such conditions.     

Effect of heating conditions of grape seeds on the antioxidant activity of grape seed extracts

This study was carried out to evaluate the effect of heating and physical conditions of grape seeds on the antioxidant activity of their extracts. Two forms of grape seeds, whole and powdered forms, were heated at four different temperatures −50, 100, 150 and 200 °C. After heating, grape seeds were extracted with 70% ethanol (0.1 g grape seed/10 mL of 70% ethanol), and total phenol contents (TPC), radical scavenging activity (RSA) and reducing power of the extracts were determined. Thermal treatment of grape seed increased the antioxidant activity of extracts. The maximum TPC and RSA of whole grape seed extract (WGSE) were achieved when the seeds were heat-treated at 150 °C for 40 min, while that of powdered grape seed extract (PGSE) were at 100 °C for 10 min, and were greater than that of the non-treated control. Also, the reducing powers of WGSE and PGSE slightly increased at the conditions. According to the GC-MS analysis, several low-molecular-weight phenolic compounds such as azelaic acid, 3,4-dihydroxy benzoic acid, and o-cinnamic acid were newly formed in the WGSE heated at 150 °C for 40 min. There were slight differences in the kinds of phenolic compounds between non-heated and heated GSE. In HPLC analysis, the contents of gallocatechin gallate and caffeine in GSE significantly increased by heat treatment. These results indicated that antioxidant activity of GSE was affected by heating conditions (temperature and time) and physical conditions of grape seeds at the time of heat treatments.     

Effects of spray drying conditions on the physicochemical and antioxidant properties of the Gac (Momordica cochinchinensis) fruit aril powder

Gac fruit aril has an attractive orange red colour and very high level of carotenoids, giving it exceptional antioxidant properties. However, spray drying of this material has not been successful and malto dextrin is considered as a suitable drying aid to preserve its colour and antioxidant properties. This paper reports the effects of inlet drying air temperature (120, 140, 160, 180 and 200 °C) and maltodextrin addition (10%, 20% and 30%) on the physicochemical and antioxidant properties of the Gac aril powder. Moisture content and bulk density, colour characteristics, total carotenoid content (TCC), encapsulation efficiency and total antioxidant activity (TAA) were significantly affected by maltodextrin concentration and the inlet air temperatures. However, pH, a_w and water solubility index were not significantly influenced by the spray drying conditions. Overall, a good quality Gac powder in terms of colour, TCC and TAA can be produced by spray-drying at inlet temperature of 120 °C and adding maltodextrin concentration at 10% w/v.     

Factors influencing antioxidant activities and total phenolic content of guava leaf extract

The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of certain factors on the yield, antioxidant activity (AA) and total phenolic content (TPC) of guava leaf extract. The effects of pretreatment of leaf sample prior to extract, extraction method, and the leaf age were investigated. Folin-Ciocalteau was used to determine the TPC. Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) and equilibrium concentration (EC) were used for evaluation of AA. Results indicated that ultrasonication is the most suitable method for guava leaf extraction as it yielded the extract with the significantly highest TPC and AA. Blanching followed by ice water cooling (BCD) was suggested for the pretreatment process of guava leaves. The study of leaf maturity demonstrated that the highest activity was from the young leaves. Hot water was the best solvent to extract the active principles. The extract of BCD pretreated young leaves, extracted by hot water exhibited the highest TPC and AA with the TEAC and EC values of 24.30 ± 0.50 and 20.41 ± 0.67 mM/mg, respectively. These values are 1.88 and 8.72 times higher than the synthetic antioxidant butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT) and 1.75 and 1.21 times higher than vitamin E, respectively. It was concluded that pretreatment and drying process, method of extraction and leaf maturity played important roles on the bioactive compounds and their antioxidant power of guava leaf extract.     

Evaluation of bioactive compounds and bioactivities of soybean dried by different methods and conditions

Soybean has attracted significant research and commercial interests due to its many health-promoting bioactive compounds, especially isoflavones (β-glucosides, malonyl-β-glucosides, acetyl-β-glucosides and aglycones). Isoflavones possess antioxidant activity and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, which has proved effective in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Prior to its use, however, soybean needs to be dried to extend its storage life and to prepare the material for subsequent food or pharmaceutical processing. The present study investigated the effects of drying methods and conditions on the drying characteristics, isoflavones, antioxidant activity and α -glucosidase inhibitory activity of dried soybean. Hot-air fluidized bed drying (HAFBD), superheated-steam fluidized bed drying (SSFBD) and gas-fired infrared combined with hot air vibrating drying (GFIR-HAVD) were carried out at various drying temperatures (50, 70, 130 and150 °C). The results showed that higher drying temperatures led to higher drying rates and higher levels of β-glucosides and antioxidant activity, but to lower levels of malonyl-β-glucosides, acetyl-β-glucosides and total isoflavones. At the same drying temperature GFIR-HAVD resulted in the highest drying rates and the highest levels of β-glucosides, aglycones and total isoflavones, antioxidant activity as well as α-glucosidase inhibitory activity of dried soybean. A drying temperature of 130 °C gave the highest levels of aglycones and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity in all cases. The relationships between all the studied parameters were monitored and simple correlations between them were determined.     

Cluster analysis of antioxidant compounds in dates (Phoenix dactylifera): Effect of long-term cold storage

Both soft (SD, Bam) and dry (DD, Kharak) date varieties were stored at 4 °C for six months followed by an additional one week storage at 18 °C. Antioxidant compounds (total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC)) of the dates increased following storage. Cluster analysis applied on TPC and TFC data before and after storage obtained two statistically significant clusters of SD and DD indicating that TPC and TFC had different behaviors according to the types of dates. As antioxidant concentration in dates was dependent on type of dates, selection of variety with high antioxidant compounds may be recommended. Further cold storage of up to six months followed by one week storage at 18 °C may further improve the level of antioxidant compounds.     

Isomerisation kinetics and antioxidant activities of β-carotene in carrots undergoing different drying techniques and conditions

Carrots are known as a natural source of β-carotene. In order to preserve the latter, carrots must generally be processed, and drying is one of the most common methods for processing carrots. During drying β-carotene in carrots suffers degradation. β-Carotene degradation is generally due to thermal degradation and isomerisation. In this work, the drying kinetics as well as the isomerisation kinetics and antioxidant activities of β-carotene in carrots undergoing hot air drying, vacuum drying and low-pressure superheated steam drying (LPSSD) were determined within the temperature range of 60–80 °C and, in the case of vacuum drying and LPSSD, at a pressure of 7 kPa. A high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was used to determine the β-carotene contents and its isomerisation kinetics, while the antioxidant activities of various combinations of all-trans- and cis-forms of β-carotene in carrots were evaluated using the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) assay.     

Effect of processing methods on the concentrations of bioactive components of ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) adventitious roots

Adventitious roots of Korean mountain ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) were processed by using forced air drying methodology at 30, 50 and 70 °C for 1, 3, 5, 10 and 20 h with objective of developing suitable processing/drying technique. Drying of adventitious roots at 50 °C for 10 h was found suitable as desirable moisture content (3.13 g water/dry matter i.e. 10%) could be reached with dried roots. Roots which were dried by such treatment were also possessing higher amount of ginsenosides (1.5 mg g⁻¹ DW triols, 15.9 mg g⁻¹ DW diols and 17.4 mg g⁻¹ DW of total ginsenosides) and phenolics. Adventitious roots were also processed by using far infrared and freeze drying methods and results revealed that forced air drying method is superior to far infrared and freeze drying methods.     

Extraction and application of antioxidants from black glutinous rice

This research aimed to determine optimum extraction condition of black glutinous rice crude extract and to determine its application as an antioxidant in fish oil enriched mayonnaise. Black glutinous rice flour was extracted twice with 70:30 acetone-water mixture (v/v) at pH 2 and 6.8 for 2, 4 and 8 h of total extraction times. Total phenolic content (TPC), total monomeric anthocyanin content (TMA) and antioxidant activities as determined by ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging activity assays of the crude extracts were measured. The extraction with pH 6.8 solvent for 4 h yielded the crude extract with significantly highest antioxidant activities analyzed by both FRAP and DPPH tests (p ≤ 0.05) although its TPC and TMA were not greatest. The freeze-dried extract from this condition was then added into fish oil enriched mayonnaise at 500 mg/kg and 1000 mg/kg (oil weight basis). Conjugated diene hydroperoxides (CDH), thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARs) and color in CIELAB system of the mayonnaise samples stored at 30 °C were determined up to 30 days. The samples contained 1000 mg/kg crude extract had lowest rate of CDH and TBARs increase but had greatest extent of color deterioration, possibly due to anthocyanin degradation and Maillard reaction.     

Drying kinetics of nopal (Opuntia ficus-indica) using three different methods and their effect on their mechanical properties

Nopal (Opuntia ficus-indica) is an endemic plant of the arid and semiarid lands of America. Preservation problems are associated with nopal utilization and processing, so a practical alternative is dehydration. This work deals with the drying of nopal correlated with the textural properties of the dried product. Convective drying studies were performed and the most representative experimental results at two air flow rates (3 and 5 m/s) and two air temperatures (45 and 65 °C) are displayed here. Experiments of osmotic drying with glucose at 40 and 60 °Brix, and drying temperatures of 25 and 45 °C were tested. A combination of both drying processes was also performed. Results have shown forced convection drying with a mostly decreasing trend at the constant rate period. In the osmotic drying, moisture loss was associated to glucose concentration. Texture profile analysis of dehydrated nopal suggested that samples undergoing convective drying have more cohesiveness than samples treated solely by osmotic drying. On the other hand, samples treated by osmotic drying became more elastic. Between the two drying methods studied, the convective drying has shown the best results at the experimental conditions assayed.     

Effects of drying methods and conditions on antimicrobial activity of edible chitosan films enriched with galangal extract

The aim of this work was to study the effects of drying methods and conditions (i.e., ambient drying, hot air drying at 40 °C, vacuum drying and low-pressure superheated steam drying within the temperature range of 70–90 °C at an absolute pressure of 10 kPa) as well as the concentration of galangal extract on the antimicrobial activity of edible chitosan films against Staphylococcus aureus. Galangal extract was added to the film forming solution as a natural antimicrobial agent in the concentration range of 0.3–0.9 g/100 g. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra and swelling of the films were also evaluated to investigate interaction between chitosan and the galangal extract. The antimicrobial activity of the films was evaluated by the disc diffusion and viable cell count method, while the morphology of bacteria treated with the antimicrobial films was observed via transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The antimicrobial activity, swelling and functional group interaction of the antimicrobial films were found to be affected by the drying methods and conditions as well as the concentration of the galangal extract. The electron microscopic observations revealed that cell wall and cell membrane of S. aureus treated by the antimicrobial films were significantly damaged.     

Physical properties of spray dried acerola pomace extract as affected by temperature and drying aids

The objective of this study was to assess the impact of some processing parameters on moisture content, flowability, hygroscopicity and water solubility of spray dried acerola pomace extract using maltodextrin and cashew tree gum as drying aids. The experiment was conducted according to Response Surface Methodology, with the independent variables being: inlet temperature (170-200 °C), drying aid/acerola ratio (2:1-5:1), and percent replacement of maltodextrin by cashew tree gum (0-100%). Higher inlet temperatures favored the desired physical properties of the powders, decreasing their moisture contents and hygroscopicity, and increasing flowability. The drying aids decreased the powder hygroscopicity, especially cashew tree gum (CTG), which also enhanced the powder flowability. The best processing conditions to obtain a free-flowing and least hygroscopic acerola pomace extract powder by spray drying were: inlet temperature above 194 °C; drying aid/acerola solid ratio, 4:1; percent replacement of maltodextrin by CTG, at least 80%.     

Optimization of oven drying conditions for lycopene content and lipophilic antioxidant capacity in a by-product of the pink guava puree industry using response surface methodology

Response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to optimize the oven drying conditions for lycopene content (Y₁) and lipophilic antioxidant capacity (Y₂) in decanter, a by-product of the pink guava puree industry. Two-factor central composite design was employed to determine the effects of two independent variables, namely temperature (X₁: 50-80 °C) and drying time (X₂: 4-6 h). Lycopene content and lipophilic antioxidant capacity were measured using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the ABTS radicals scavenging assay, respectively. A β-carotene bleaching assay was also applied to measure the antioxidant activity. Response surface plots showed that an increase in temperature and time significantly reduced the response variables. The optimum oven conditions for drying of decanter with minimum lycopene degradation were 43.8 °C for 6.4 h, with a predicted lycopene content of 14 mg/100 g and antioxidant capacity of 21 μmol LE/100 g. To validate the optimized model, the experimental values were compared with the predicted values to check the adequacy of the model. The experimental values were found to be in agreement with those predicted, indicating the suitability of the model for optimizing the oven drying conditions for decanter.     

Effect of far-infrared radiation drying of citrus press-cakes on free radical scavenging and antioxidant activities

In this study, far-infrared radiation (FIR) drying was used to convert wet citrus press-cakes (CPCs) into dried form at different temperatures (40, 50, 60, 70, and 80 °C). The dried samples were evaluated for flavonoid composition by HPLC and antioxidant activities by various in vitro assays. Compared with CPCs prepared by freeze drying (FD), all FIR-dried CPCs showed slightly lower extraction yield and total phenolic content, but almost equal total flavonoid contents and antioxidant activities. However, CPCs dried by FIR showed significantly lower drying times. Therefore, FIR drying is effective and economical method. CPCs dried by FIR at 80 °C showed higher antioxidant activities in several assays, and needed very short drying time. Hence, FIR-80 sample was more potential than other FIR-dried samples. The data confirmed that FIR drying is an effective process to convert wet CPCs into dried form which shows strong antioxidant activities.     

Chemical characterization and functional properties of a potato protein concentrate prepared by large-scale expanded bed adsorption chromatography

Native potato proteins consisting mainly of patatin and protease inhibitors were isolated from industrial potato fruit water by expanded bed adsorption (EBA) chromatography. The EBA-refined proteins were dried by different methods and the effect of drying-conditions on solubility, extent of denaturation, rheology and emulsifying properties was investigated. Drying methods include spray drying at varying outlet temperatures, vacuum freeze drying, fluid-bed and atmospherical freeze drying. Solubilities measured in the range pH 4-6 showed that the higher solubility was at pH 6 of around 65%, except for spray drying using an outlet temperature of 165 °C, which showed low solubility for all pH values. Spray drying at 90 °C and atmospheric freeze-drying emerged as the least deleterious methods with respect to retaining esterase and protease inhibitor activities, comparable to the vacuum freeze drying. The values obtained for the complex modulus suggest that potato protein is not a good gel former even when the protein was vacuum freeze dried. Emulsions prepared with xanthan as stabilizer were more stable at pH 6 compared to pH 4 judged from oil particle sizes. This study showed that potato proteins obtained under gentle isolation and drying conditions will provide interesting functional properties for potential application in food systems.     

Response surface optimisation for the extraction of phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacities of underutilised Mangifera pajang Kosterm. peels

The optimum extraction conditions for highest recovery of total phenolics content (TPC) and antioxidant capacities (AC) were analysed for Mangifera pajang peels (MPP), using response surface methodology. The effects of ethanol concentration (X₁: 20–80%), extraction temperature (X₂: 30–65 °C) and liquid-to-solid ratio (X₃: 20–50 mL/g) on the recovery of total phenolics (Y₁) and antioxidant capacity (Y₂) were investigated. A second order polynomial model produced a satisfactory fitting of the experimental data with regard to total phenolic content (R² = 0.9966, p < 0.0001) and antioxidant capacity (R² = 0.9953, p < 0.0001). The optimum extraction conditions for TPC were 68%, 55 °C and 32.7 mL/g, and for AC were 68%, 56 °C and 31.8 mL/g, respectively. Predicted values for extraction of TPC and AC agreed well with the experimental values. Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry of the optimally obtained extracts from MPP revealed the major phytochemicals as mangiferin, gallic acid, catechin and epicatechin.     

Antioxidant activity of Camellia sinensis leaves and tea from a lowland plantation in Malaysia

Methanol extracts of fresh tea leaves from a lowland plantation in Malaysia were screened for total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (AOA). AOA evaluation included 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical-scavenging ability, ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and ferrous-ion chelating (FIC) ability. Ranking, based on TPC and AOA, was as follows: shoots > young leaves > mature leaves. TPC and AOA of lowland leaves were comparable to those of highland plants. A green tea produced by drying young leaves in a household microwave oven for 4 min showed significantly higher TPC and AOA than did four commercial brands of green and black tea.