Eyewitness identification: Retrospective self-awareness and the accuracy–confidence correlation.

Conducted 4 experiments to test the hypothesis that retrospective self-awareness (RSA) would increase the correlation between eyewitness identification accuracy and confidence. Undergraduate students (48, 33, 75, and 72 in Exps I–IV, respectively) participated as Ss. In all studies, Ss watched a staged crime; immediately afterwards, they were asked to identify the culprit from a photospread and to indicate their confidence in that judgment. In an RSA condition, Ss also viewed a videotape of their performance before rating their confidence. Collectively, the results show an average correlation of .04 in the control groups and .48 in the RSA condition. The data tentatively support a self-perception hypothesis that this manipulation is effective because it alerts Ss to valid but previously unobserved aspects of their own overt behavior (e.g., response latency). Findings are discussed for their theoretical and forensic implications. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Eyewitness identification accuracy, confidence, and decision times in simultaneous and sequential lineups.

Eyewitness identification accuracy was investigated in simultaneous and sequential lineups. 72 Ss watched a film of a robbery in a public park under incidental learning conditions and returned to the laboratory the following day to answer questions about the film. Sequential lineup procedures led to significantly fewer false identifications than the simultaneous lineup mode, with comparable performance in detecting the perpetrator in target-present conditions. Alternative methods for analyzing confidence and decision times in sequential lineups are presented which allow for more fine-grained analyses of the relationships between accuracy, confidence, and decision times both between and within Ss. Distinguishing between choosers and nonchoosers, these analyses show the predictive utility of decision times and confidence as assessment variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The storm and stress (or calm) of early adolescent self-concepts: Within- and between-subjects variability.

This study uses intraindividual variability and change methods to test theoretical accounts of self-concept and its change across time and context and to test the developmental implications of this variability. The 5-year longitudinal study of 541 youths in a rural Pennsylvania community from 3rd through 7th grade included twice-yearly assessments of self-concept (academic and social), corresponding external evaluations of competence (e.g., teacher-rated academic skills, peer-nominated “likeability”), and multiple measures of youths' overall adjustment. Multiphase growth models replicate previous research, suggesting significant decline in academic self-concept during middle school but modest growth in social self-concept from 3rd through 7th grade. Next, a new contribution is made to the literature by quantifying the amount of within-subject variability (i.e., “lability”) around these linear self-concept trajectories as a between-subjects characteristic. Self-concept lability was found to associate with a general profile of poorer competence and adjustment and to predict poorer academic and social competence at the end of 7th grade above and beyond level of self-concept. Finally, there was substantial evidence that wave-to-wave changes in youths' self-concepts correspond to teacher and peer evaluations of youths' competence, that attention to peer feedback may be particularly strong during middle school, and that these relations may be moderated by between-subjects indicators of youths' general adjustment. Overall, findings highlight the utility of methods sensitive to within-subject variation for clarifying the dynamics of youths' self-system development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Eyewitness recall: Regulation of grain size and the role of confidence.

Eyewitness testimony plays a critical role in Western legal systems. Three experiments extended M. Goldsmith, A. Koriat, and A. Weinberg-Eliezer's (2002) framework of the regulation of grain size (precision vs. coarseness) of memory reports to eyewitness memory. In 2 experiments, the grain size of responses had a large impact on memory accuracy. Further, participants achieved a compromise between the accuracy and informativeness of their testimony by volunteering precise answers only when likely to be correct. The level of detail reported was strongly, positively related to confidence in the accuracy of the response. This highlights the importance of considering the level of detail, not just the accuracy, of eyewitness testimony. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Eyewitness memory and aging: Predictors of accuracy in recall and person recognition.

Examined adult age differences in identification accuracy, confidence, and verbal recall of crime films. A total of 120 Ss in 3 adult age groups watched 2 crime films that contained characters varying in role and visibility. Results suggested a modest negative relationship between age and identification accuracy but no age differences in recall of main points or details. Education and self-reported health positively predicted verbal recall, but higher education was associated with lower identification accuracy. No age differences were found in confidence or in the relationship between confidence and accuracy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correlation of eyewitness accuracy and confidence: Optimality hypothesis revisited.

Inasmuch as a completely satisfactory estimate of effect size for the eyewitness accuracy-confidence relation does not exist, we conducted a meta-analysis of 35 staged-event studies. Estimated r?=?.25 (d?=?.52), with a 95% confidence interval of .08 to .42. Sampling error accounted for 52% of the variation in r, leaving room for measurement error and possibly moderator variables to account for the remaining variation. Further analysis identified duration of target face exposure as a moderator variable, providing support for Deffenbacher's (1980) optimality hypothesis. When corrected for the attenuating effect of sampling error in the accuracy-confidence correlations, the correlation of exposure duration and the accuracy-confidence correlation was .51: Longer exposures allowed for greater predictability of accuracy from confidence. Even through correlation for unreliability in the confidence measure produces a higher estimate of the population correlation of accuracy and confidence, .34, one must be cautious in assessing the utility of confidence for predicting accuracy in actual cases. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Witness confidence and witness accuracy: Assessing their forensic relation.

Jurors overbelieve eyewitnesses, have difficulty reliably differentiating accurate from inaccurate eyewitnesses, and are not adequately sensitive to aspects of witnessing and identification conditions. A major source of juror unreliability is reliance on witness confidence, a dubious indicator of eyewitness accuracy even when measured at the time an identification is made. Confidence appears to be influenced by postidentification factors such as repeated questioning, briefings in anticipation of cross-examination, and feedback about the behavior of other witnesses. Juror reliance on witness confidence appears to be unaffected by traditional safeguards such as cross-examination and judges' instructions in eyewitness cases. Expert psychological testimony on the factors that influence eyewitness memory, in contrast, appears to reduce juror reliance on confidence and enhance use of other factors known to affect memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward using confidence intervals to compare correlations.

Confidence intervals are widely accepted as a preferred way to present study results. They encompass significance tests and provide an estimate of the magnitude of the effect. However, comparisons of correlations still rely heavily on significance testing. The persistence of this practice is caused primarily by the lack of simple yet accurate procedures that can maintain coverage at the nominal level in a nonlopsided manner. The purpose of this article is to present a general approach to constructing approximate confidence intervals for differences between (a) 2 independent correlations, (b) 2 overlapping correlations, (c) 2 nonoverlapping correlations, and (d) 2 independent R2s. The distinctive feature of this approach is its acknowledgment of the asymmetry of sampling distributions for single correlations. This approach requires only the availability of confidence limits for the separate correlations and, for correlated correlations, a method for taking into account the dependency between correlations. These closed-form procedures are shown by simulation studies to provide very satisfactory results in small to moderate sample sizes. The proposed approach is illustrated with worked examples. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Eyewitness memory enhancement in the police interview: Cognitive retrieval mnemonics versus hypnosis.

Compared the effectiveness of 3 interview procedures for optimizing eyewitness memory performance: the cognitive interview based on memory-retrieval mnemonics from current memory theory, the presently controversial hypnosis interview, and the standard (control) police interview. Interviews were conducted in a controlled, yet ecologically valid, laboratory setting. 89 undergraduates viewed police training films of simulated violent crimes and were questioned individually in interactive interviews 48 hrs later by 1 of 16 law-enforcement personnel who had completed a 40-hr course in forensic hypnosis and had field experience of at least 100 cases. Results show that both the cognitive and hypnosis procedures elicited a significantly greater number of correct items of information from Ss than did the standard interview. This result, which held even for the most critical facts from the films, was most pronounced for crime scenarios in which the density of events was high. The number of incorrect items of information generated did not differ across the 3 interview conditions. The observed memory enhancement is interpreted in terms of the memory-guidance techniques common to both the cognitive and hypnosis interviews. Neither differential questioning time nor heightened S or interviewer motivation could explain the results. (56 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rater training and rating accuracy: Training for dimensional accuracy versus training for ratee differentiation.

Undergraduate Ss possessing normative or idiosyncratic rating standards were given frame-of-reference training, rater-error training, training that controlled for structural similarities between frame-of-reference training and rater-error training, or null control training. Hypothesized pretest differences that normative raters are more accurate than idiosyncratic raters were not found. However, when data were collapsed across rating aptitude, different trainings were found to improve different measures of accuracy. Frame-of-reference trainees were most accurate on stereotype accuracy and differential accuracy, rater-error trainees were most accurate on elevation, and all groups improved on differential elevation. Results are discussed in relation to the role of rater aptitude in frame-of-reference training and the future of rater-training programs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Calibration and diagnosticity of confidence in eyewitness identification: Comments on what can be inferred from the low confidence–accuracy correlation.

The relationship between eyewitness confidence and accuracy as measured by the ψ point-biserial correlation has been described as poor or even nonexistent in the literature on lineup identifications. In this article, 3 arguments are made. First, a low point-biserial correlation is compatible with good or even perfect calibration (realism) of confidence, and the correlation provides no information about whether witnesses over- or underestimate the probability of a correct identification. Second, point-biserial correlations provide almost no information about whether confidence is diagnostic in the sense that it should be taken into account by the court when evaluating eyewitness identifications. Third, useful information is provided by calibration analysis and computation of diagnosticity indices. These arguments are illustrated with data from an experiment with photo-confrontations that rely on photo material used by the Swedish Police and where foils were selected by experienced police officers in the manner of routine investigations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Forensically relevant moderators of the relation between eyewitness identification accuracy and confidence.

Meta-analyses of 9 studies were conducted that all assess the association between pre-lineup confidence and identification accuracy; the association between post-lineup confidence produces a stronger correlation with identification accuracy than does pre-lineup confidence. In 5 of these studies the difference between correlations is statistically significant. Furthermore, correlations between pre-lineup confidence and accuracy were trivial in magnitude, ranging from .00 to .20. The conclusion is drawn that a witness's confidence in his or her ability to make an identification should not be given much weight in determining whether or not to have the witness attempt an identification. Also, pre-lineup confidence should not be used to evaluate the accuracy of an identification. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Asymptotic confidence limits for the difference between two squared multiple correlations: A simplified approach.

This article develops equations for determining the asymptotic confidence limits for the difference between 2 squared multiple correlation coefficients. The present procedure uses the delta method described by I. Olkin and J. D. Finn (1995) but does not require the variance-covariance matrix and the partial derivatives for all the zero-order correlations that enter into the expression for the difference, as does their procedure. This simplified approach can lead to an extreme reduction in the calculations required, as well as a reduction in the mathematical complexity of the solution. This approach also demonstrates clearly that in some cases, it may be inappropriate to use the asymptotic confidence limits in tests of significance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A familiarity-based account of confidence–accuracy inversions in recognition memory.

A simple memory model, MINERVA 2 (D. L. Hintzman, see record 1987-06242-001), was applied to data from 2 experiments (C. C. Chandler, see records 76-24866 and 81-39910; E. Tulving, see record 1982-09060-001) that showed an inverse relationship between confidence and accuracy. MINERVA 2 produces the inverse relationship without modification or special assumptions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recall memory, recognition memory, and the eyewitness confidence–accuracy correlation.

Research on the eyewitness confidence-accuracy correlation assesses the degree of insight that eyewitnesses have into the accuracy of their memories. Recently, researchers have begun to consider some of the variables that may facilitate or hinder such insight. In the present study with 205 college undergraduates, a previously unexamined influence on this correlation in the context of memory for details of a simulated crime was investigated. The authors hypothesized and found that recall memory conditions (in which no alternative answers were provided) were characterized by a higher eyewitness confidence–accuracy correlation than recognition memory conditions (in which alternative answers were provided). These findings are explained as a function of the availability of an ease-of-retrieval cue in recall memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Eyewitness testimony research: Current knowledge and emergent controversies.

Discusses major eyewitness research findings regarding topics such as the relationship between accuracy and confidence, the identification of perpetrators from lineups, and the influence of misleading information on eyewitness memory and reports. It is contended that the debate regarding expert testimony (XT) has sharpened researchers' conceptions of generalization problems and the quality of jurors' knowledge about eyewitness accuracy and has raised concerns about the proper role of experimental psychologists in the legal system. It is proposed that the confusion and controversy over XT involves the fact that XT represents an attempt to provide services to the judicial rather than the evidence-production phase of the fact-finding process. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Eyewitness accounts of females and males.

In 2 experiments 125 male and 125 female college students looked at a series of slides depicting a wallet snatching (Exp I) or a fight (Exp II) and then took a multiple-choice test of accuracy for the details of that incident. One day later, they read a version of the incident that for some of them contained misleading information about certain objects in the scene. Finally, a test was administered to measure the extent to which the misleading information was incorporated into the S's recollections. Females were more accurate and more resistant to suggestion about female-oriented details, whereas males were more accurate and resistant to suggestion about male-oriented details. This result is related to the general tendency for accuracy on a specific item to lead to an improved ability to resist a suggestion about that specific item. Additional analyses indicated that overall accuracy was related neither to intelligence (as measured by a college entrance test) nor to specific abilities, such as verbal or spatial ability. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Choosing, confidence, and accuracy: A meta-analysis of the confidence-accuracy relation in eyewitness identification studies.

There is widespread agreement among researchers that the correlation between identification accuracy and confidence in identification judgments is weak. For this reason, many experts caution against heavy reliance on confidence when evaluating identification accuracy. The authors present a meta-analytic review of 30 studies using staged-event methods that include target-present and target-absent lineups. Although the overall confidence–accuracy correlation in these studies corresponds to that reported in previous reviews, including choice as a moderator variable leads to a somewhat different conclusion. For choosers (those making positive identification), the confidence–accuracy correlation was reliably and consistently higher than for nonchoosers. In addition, the mean confidence level for correct choosers is higher than that for incorrect choosers in every study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Eyewitness identification and the local psychologist.

M. McCloskey and H. E. Egeth (see PA, Vol 71:6612 and 6613) questioned the ability of psychologists to provide needed information concerning perception and memory in eyewitnesses, whereas E. F. Loftus (see record 1984-06608-001) described a moral obligation to the innocent, mistakenly accused defendant that outweighs the lack of empirical certitude. This debate is discussed in relation to the position of the local psychologist called to give expert testimony in trials. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)