Modification of study time and grades through self-control procedures.

Evaluated the efficacy of a self-control treatment package to increase daily study time and grades of 44 undergraduates. The additive contribution of individual elements to the treatment package, as well as the potential difference in setting proximal vs distal goals, were also investigated through the use of the following treatment groups: (1) self-monitoring, distal goals, financial contingency, and group meetings; (2) self-monitoring, distal goals, and financial contingency; (3) self-monitoring and distal goals; (4) self-monitoring and proximal goals; (5) self-monitoring alone; (6) waiting-list control. Results show that, without differing from each other, the 1st 3 groups were all superior to self-monitoring and waiting-list control in terms of time spent studying. No significant improvement was found for grades. Results are discussed in terms of implications for potential use in applied settings. (French abstract) (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavior modification of studying through study skills advice and self-control procedures.

Investigated the efficacy of 2 behavioral self-control procedures as additions to the typical treatment for college students' study Black skills advice. A between-Ss pyramid design was used with 108 undergraduates, with the pyramid entailing combinations of self-control procedures as treatment additions to the study skills advice. The 2 control and 4 treatment groups indicate (a) family (b) no-treatment control, (c) study skills advice, (d) study skills advice plus stimulus control, (e) study skills advice plus self-monitoring, and (f) study skills advice plus stimulus control plus self-monitoring. Treatments were delivered primarily via typed handouts. In terms of course exam scores, it was predicted that self-monitoring would be an effective treatment addition to study skills advice would be superior to the control groups and that these controls would be equivalent. Results support these predictions. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Weight gain following smoking cessation.

Smoking generally suppresses body weight below "normal," and smoking cessation allows weight to return to normal. This weight gain following cessation appears to be due to a transient increase in eating coupled with the removal of acute metabolic effects of each cigarette, with no change in physical activity. Nevertheless, tobacco smoke (and specifically nicotine) does not appear to be simply either an anorectic or a thermogenic agent. Although there may be no easy explanation for the effects of smoking on energy balance, the most parsimonious explanation may be that smoking lowers body weight "set point" and cessation raises set point. The transient changes in eating are therefore secondary to the changes in body weight set point. This notion is supported by animal research with nicotine as well as with other drugs, and it is also supported less directly by the pattern of changes observed with changes in smoking status among humans. A set-point explanation for weight gain after smoking cessation may also help explain the lack of success of interventions designed to prevent this weight gain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Two self-control procedures in the reduction of targeted and nontargeted anxieties.

Compared the effects of relaxation as self-control and a self-control variant of systematic desensitization (SD) in reducing targeted (test anxiety) and nontargeted anxieties with those of wait-list and no-treatment expectancy controls; 12 male and 57 female undergraduates were Ss. Immediately following counseling and at follow-up, groups given relaxation as self-control and SD both reported significantly less debilitating test anxiety and significantly more facilitating test anxiety than controls. In a stressful analog testing condition, self-control groups reported significantly less worry, emotionality, and state test anxiety than controls. While no performance differences were found in the analog situation, relaxation as self-control and modified SD Ss had significantly higher psychology grades than the no-treatment expectancy group. Grades of the wait-list group were not significantly different from those of other groups. The relaxation as self-control group showed reduction and maintenance on both measures of nontargeted anxiety relative to the controls. The modified SD group showed posttreatment reduction on both nontargeted anxiety measures but maintenance on only one. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generalization and maintenance of appropriate behavior through self-control.

8 7-11 yr old disruptive children attended an after school reading tutorial program 1 hr a day for 72 days. After baseline, Ss evaluated their academic and social behavior. A token program was instituted and then modified to include the following procedures: (a) Points and backup reinforcers were made contingent upon accurate self-ratings; (b) the requirement of accurately matching teacher ratings was faded until the children had complete control over point distribution; and (c) backup reinforcers were also faded and eliminated. While there was a lack of generalization of appropriate social behavior to the regular classroom situation, generalization was demonstrated in the 15-min control period of every class, and maintenance was demonstrated in the final week of the program after all backup reinforcers were withdrawn. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Two procedures for relaxation as self-control in the treatment of communication apprehension.

An in vivo procedure for relaxation as self-control, and a procedure for self-control modification of desensitization (modified desensitization) were compared to a no-treatment control. Ss were 34 female and 4 male undergraduates. Effectiveness was gauged by the reduction of (a) the targeted anxiety (communication apprehension) and (b) the nontargeted fear of negative evaluation and assertiveness. Results show that modified desensitization, compared to the control, significantly decreased communication anxiety and fear of negative evaluation and significantly increased assertiveness. Relaxation as self-control led to significantly decreased communication apprehension, significantly increased assertiveness, and nearly significant reduction in fear of negative evaluation ( p     

Behavioral self-control of smoking through aversive conditioning and self-management.

Evaluated self-control variants of aversive conditioning and self-management procedures for the modification of cigarette smoking. 16–37 yr old smokers (90% undergraduates) were assigned to 10 treatment conditions arranged in a 2?×?5 (Self-Management?×?Aversive Conditioning) factorial design; another 20 smokers were included in a no-apply control group. Five varieties of aversive conditioning were used: aversive conditioning, placebo shock, therapist-delivered shock, S-delivered shock, and imagined aversive scene. Half of the smokers under each variety of aversive conditioning received additional training in a package of self-management techniques. Smokers were seen by individual therapists in 6 sessions over 3 wks. The treatment effects of aversive conditioning were negligible, and in some instances they were surpassed by the effects of controls for nonspecific treatment factors and placebo effects. The addition of self-management to aversive conditioning significantly reduced smoking beyond aversive conditioning effects over a 20-wk follow-up. However, no treatment combination led to reductions in smoking beyond controls for nonspecific factors, nor were reductions maintained over follow-up times. Implications for behavioral self-control strategies are discussed. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Weight gain and metabolic disturbances associated with the atypical antipsychotics.

Reviews recent literature to characterize the scope of the problem of weight gain and metabolic disturbances associated with atypical antipsychotics. The authors then describe suspected underlying biological mechanisms and discuss differences among the atypical antipsychotics that are currently available in the US. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Two self-control procedures in the reduction of targeted and nontargeted anxieties: A year later.

Reports a 12-mo follow-up of a study by the authors (see record 1979-29126-001) that investigated the effects of self-control interventions on targeted (test) and nontargeted anxieties. One yr after the initial 6-wk follow-up, relaxation-as-self-control and modified-desensitization groups showed maintenance of reductions in debilitating test anxiety and continued to report significantly less debilitating test anxiety than the no-treatment control group. No significant differences among groups were found for either facilitating test anxiety or GPAs. Both self-control groups tended to show maintenance of nontargeted anxiety reductions, with relaxation-as-self-control Ss reporting significantly less nontargeted anxiety than controls; the differences on nontargeted anxiety measures only approached significance for Ss in the modified desensitization condition. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conserving self-control strength.

Individuals may be motivated to limit their use of self-control resources, especially when they have depleted some of that resource. Expecting to need self-control strength in the future should heighten the motivation to conserve strength. In 4 experiments, it was found that depleted participants who anticipated exerting self-control in the future performed more poorly in an intervening test of self-control than participants who were not depleted, and more poorly than those who did not expect to exert self-control in the future. Conversely, those who conserved strength performed better on tasks that they conserved the strength for as compared with those who did not conserve. The underlying economic or conservation of resource model sheds some light on the operation of self-control strength. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Construal levels and self-control.

The authors propose that self-control involves making decisions and behaving in a manner consistent with high-level versus low-level construals of a situation. Activation of high-level construals (which capture global, superordinate, primary features of an event) should lead to greater self-control than activation of low-level construals (which capture local, subordinate, secondary features). In 6 experiments using 3 different techniques, the authors manipulated construal levels and assessed their effects on self-control and underlying psychological processes. High-level construals led to decreased preferences for immediate over delayed outcomes, greater physical endurance, stronger intentions to exert self-control, and less positive evaluations of temptations that undermine self-control. These results support a construal-level analysis of self-control. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Weight control through covert sensitization and false feedback.

45 undergraduates who were at least 10 lbs over their ideal weight were treated with 1 of 3 weight control procedures: (a) attention placebo, (b) covert sensitization, and (c) covert sensitization augmented by false physiological feedback. Although all of the treatment groups lost weight, there was no differential weight loss among the groups at posttest or a 4-wk follow-up test. The effectiveness of covert sensitization beyond that of the simpler attention placebo procedure was limited to reductions in the rated desirability of foods incorporated in the treatments. The addition of false feedback led to a greater reduction in these desirability ratings beyond that which could be attributed to covert sensitization alone. Results are discussed in terms of the limited instances in which convert sensitization might be applicable as a weight control procedure. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Roaming through methodology. X. The testing of diagnostic procedures

In this era of evidence-based medicine, diagnostic tests cannot escape close scrutiny of their effectiveness. Sensitivity and specificity have up till now played a central role in the evaluation of diagnostic tests. These terms are not without their shortcomings when it comes to the characterisation of a test's true worth for patients. Randomised clinical trials are increasingly used for evaluation of medical tests and outlining of strategy. The indirect relationship between test results and health outcome creates additional challenges for designers of such trials.     

Increasing the maintenance of self-control treatments through faded counselor contact and high information feedback.

In many counseling studies, follow-up data indicate that clients have abandoned treatment procedures and their initial progress has deteriorated. The present experiment explored 2 procedures for enhancing treatment maintenance: fading counselor contact and increasing information feedback. 97 volunteer college students concerned about academic underachievement participated. A bibliocounseling system was employed involving 4 behavioral self-control groups, a study skills advice group, and a no-treatment control group. The design also included a no-contact control group of 21 nonvolunteers. Grade and questionnaire results showed faded contact was superior to steady contact for enhancing treatment maintenance. Increasing information feedback about treatment effectiveness did not affect maintenance. Self-control and study skills advice groups were superior to control groups. Results suggest that counselors should consider fading their contact with clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Minority students' self-control of procrastination.

Examined the effects of self-monitoring alone and self-monitoring plus self-reward on 3 academic and 3 related procrastinative behaviors of 6 academically disadvantaged minority undergraduates. It was hypothesized that self-monitoring plus self-reward would increase academic behaviors and decrease related procrastinating behaviors. It was also predicted that self-monitoring alone would not be as effective as with reward. A 3rd hypothesis was that Ss would be able to maintain multiple self-reward contracts simultaneously. Research assistants recorded academic, procrastinative, and percentage of initial contract maintenance behaviors. Results indicate that Ss self-monitored consistently and accurately and self-rewarded frequently the occurrences of their academic behaviors. Self-monitoring alone did not reduce academic or procrastinative behaviors. Self-monitoring plus self-reward was effective in producing substantial increases in academic behaviors and grades and in producing decreases in related procrastinative behaviors. Ss were able to initiate sequential multiple self-reward contracts and to continue these self-reward contracts simultaneously. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counteractive self-control in overcoming temptation.

How do anticipated short-term costs affect the likelihood of engaging in an activity that has long-term benefits. Five studies investigated the factors that determine (a) how anticipated short-term costs elicit self-control efforts and (b) how self-control efforts eventually diminish the influence of short-term costs on behavior. The studies manipulated short-term costs (e.g., painful medical procedures) and assessed a variety of self-control strategies (e.g., self-imposed penalties for failure to undergo a test). The results show that short-term costs elicit self-control strategies for self rather than others, before rather than after behavior, when long-term benefits are important rather than unimportant and when the costs are moderate rather than extremely small or large. The results also show that the self-control efforts help people act according to their long-term interests. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Determinants of justification and self-control.

The authors propose that people use 2 routes in justifying self-gratification: 1st through hard work or excellence (entitlement) and the 2nd through the attainment of vices without depleting income. This framework was tested using real tasks and choices adopted from prior research on self-control. The results indicate that (a) higher effort and (bogus) excellence feedback increase preferences for vice rewards, but these effects are reversed or attenuated when the interchangeability of effort and income is implied; (b) willingness to pay in effort is greater for vices than virtues, but willingness to pay in income is higher for virtues; and (c) these effects are magnified among individuals with stronger (chronic or manipulated) guilt. The authors discuss the ability of the justification routes to explain the findings of prior self-control research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Weight loss through variations in the coverant control paradigm.

Assigned 40 overweight female Ss to 1 of 8 treatment combinations in a 2 * 2 * 2 matrix. The use of positive coverants produced significantly (p     

Effort training increases generalized self-control.

Noting that the self-control required to choose the larger of 2 available rewards usually commits a person to expend more effort than does the choice of the smaller reward, the present authors investigated 46 2nd- and 3rd-grade children's receipt of reward for low effort vs high effort as a cause of individual differences in the tendency toward generalized self-control. Baseline self-control was measured by means of repeated choices between copying nonsense words for high pay vs waiting the equivalent duration for low pay. Next, Ss were paid for high effort in tasks involving object counting, picture memory, and shape matching; were paid the same amount of money for low effort in these tasks; or did not undergo effort training. Ss who were rewarded for high effort subsequently showed greater self-control in the copying task than did the low-effort group or the no-training control group. It is concluded that individual differences in generalized self-control may depend on the previous degree and range of effort training. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)