A lens-mapping framework for understanding the encoding and decoding of interpersonal dispositions in nonverbal behavior.

Recent reviewers have concluded that dispositions are not very reliably encoded in nonverbal behavior, although observers seem eager to use nonverbal information to decode the dispositions of others. A modified Brunswik lens model (E. Brunswik, 1956) and behavior mapping were used to examine the encoding and decoding of 8 interpersonal dispositions from nonverbal cues. First, 20 triads completed self-assessments and were videotaped during conversation. Next, 38 of their nonverbal behaviors were independently scored. Finally, 21 unacquainted peers rated all 60 conversers on the same dispositions. Across the 8 dispositions, encoding multiple correlations ranged from 0 to .62 and decoding ranged from .74 to .82. Achievement (self-other correlations) ranged from .18 to .45. Some implications of the results for interpersonal conflict and personality assessment are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Analyzing nonverbal behavior in depression.

Describes the use of time-series notation as an objective approach to a refined analysis of nonverbal behavior in depression, using behavioral samples taken from doctor–patient interviews. The movement patterns of 13 26–67 yr old depressed patients were studied twice, first when the patients were diagnosed to be in a severely depressed state, and second, when they were judged to be nearly recovered. The movements of head, trunk, shoulders, upper arms, hands, upper legs, and feet were transcribed as a series of positions over time for the 1st 3 min of each of 26 doctor–patient interviews. Codings were obtained from video recordings, at half-second intervals, for 55 coding dimensions. Three parameters, the mobility, the complexity, and the dynamic activation of body movement, were defined and quantified on the basis of these data matrixes. Findings demonstrate that the time-series notation of nonverbal interaction offers new possibilities in the quantitative study of behavior, especially in the assessment of behavioral features of potential importance in determining diagnostic subgroup and therapeutic response. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of seating distance on interpersonal attraction in an interview situation.

Assigned 42 schizophrenic and 42 alcoholic inpatients randomly to 1 of 3 conditions differing in the seated distance between S and E during a brief "intake" interview. Results indicate that schizophrenic Ss seated at both the intermediate (personal) and far (social) distances, as opposed to the close (intimate) distance, were more attracted to the E. Alcoholic Ss seated at the intermediate as opposed to the close distance were more attracted to the E. Measures of E's attitudes following the interview revealed that he was more attracted to the alcoholic than to the schizophrenic Ss. Findings support the notion that seating distance as a channel of nonverbal communication can affect the interviewer-patient relationship. (25 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived structure of nonverbal behavior.

36 undergraduate observers viewed a sequence of nonverbal behavior that was described as being either spontaneous (the stimulus person was filmed with a hidden camera) or deliberate (the stimulus person was acting). While watching the videotape, Ss segmented the behavior into meaningful units. Those who believed they were watching deliberate behavior generated approximately twice as many units for the nonverbal sequence as did Ss who believed they were viewing spontaneous action. The findings are discussed in terms of a cognitive schema that an observer uses in the active organization of behavioral events. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control, interpersonal trust, and nonverbal communication accuracy.

Two measures of nonverbal sensitivity to facial cues, sensitivity to unknown others, and sensitivity to an intimate other, along with a measure of general sending accuracy, were obtained from 48 married couples (20–31 yrs old). Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale and the Rotter Trust Scale were administered. It was predicted that (a) internal Ss would demonstrate better nonverbal encoding and decoding skills, (b) high-trust Ss would be better able to decode the nonverbal cues of other, and (c) the combination of internality and high trust would be associated with the highest level of decoding abilities and that the combination of external and low trust would correlate with the lowest level of decoding abilities. Results show no relation between either control or trust expectancies and sending accuracy. Trust expectancies covaried with nonverbal receiving abilities for both men and women, with high trust being associated with increased sensitivity. Control expectancies covaried with general nonverbal receiving abilities differently for both men and women, with internal women scoring higher and internal low-trust men scoring lowest on these measures. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender and nonverbal decoding skill as determinants of interpersonal expectancy effects.

Investigated the occurrence of the self-fulfilling prophecy in same- and mixed-sex dyads. 10 male and female undergraduates served as interviewers and interacted with 90 male and female interviewees. It was hypothesized that male interviewers (a) would be more influenced by erroneous preinteraction information about interviewees than females, (b) would show more biased behavior toward their interviewees, and (c) would be more influential at producing behavior in the interviewees that confirmed their expectations. It was also anticipated that female interviewees would be more responsive to the interpersonal expectations of their interviewers and show stronger behavioral confirmation. Results show that males were more biased by their expectations and produced stronger behavioral confirmation in their interviewees than females, and that female interviewees more readily showed behavioral confirmation than males. Males who were good audio decoders accurately diagnosed more bias in the behavior of their interviewers than males who were poor decoders (Profile on Nonverbal Sensitivity). (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychopathy and the allocation of attentional capacity in a divided-attention situation.

Investigated the hypothesis that psychopaths allocate most of their attentional capacity to stimuli and responses of immediate interest by assessing psychopaths' dual-task performance under 2 instructional sets. Using R. D. Hare's (see record 1985-22847-001) psychopathology checklist, 72 White male prison inmates (approximate mean age 25 yrs) were classified as psychopaths or nonpsychopaths. It was hypothesized that psychopaths would divide attention adequately between a visual search and probe reaction time (RT) task, but that when instructions defined the search as Ss' primary task, psychopaths would overfocus on it and outperform nonpsychopaths at the cost of relatively poor secondary task performance. Results challenge the validity of the overfocusing hypothesis. S groups performed equally well on the search when it received instructional priority, but psychopaths made more search errors under divided-attention instructions. Psychopaths also responded more slowly than nonpsychopaths to auditory probes across conditions. Results suggest that psychopaths may incur relatively large capacity costs in attempting to shift their attentional resources between processing tasks. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Field dependence and interpersonal behavior.

A review of the literature indicates that people with field-dependent or field-independent cognitive styles are different in their interpersonal behavior in ways predicted by the theory of psychological differentiation. Field-dependent people make greater use of external social referents, but only when the situation is ambiguous and these referents provide information that helps to remove the ambiguity; field-independent people function with greater autonomy under such conditions. Field-dependent people are more attentive to social cues than are field-independent people. Field-dependent people have an interpersonal orientation: They show strong interest in others, prefer to be physically close to people, are emotionally open, and gravitate toward social situations. Field-independent people have an impersonal orientation: They are not very interested in others, show both physical and psychological distancing from people, and prefer nonsocial situations. Finally, field-dependent and field-independent people are different in an array of characteristics that make it likely that field-dependent people will get along better with others. Altogether, field-dependent people have a set of social skills that are less evident in field-independent people. On the other hand, field-independent people have greater skill in cognitive analysis and structuring. This pattern suggests that, with regard to level, the field-dependence–independence dimension is bipolar; each of the contrasting cognitive styles has components that are adaptive to particular situations, making the dimension value neutral. (7 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A semantic space for nonverbal behavior.

Reviews evidence relevant to the conceptualization of the referents of nonverbal behavior. 3 dimensions seem to evolve consistently from studies of both verbal and nonverbal behavior to account for the bulk of the variability of the referents. These are evaluation, potency or status, and responsiveness. Increases in positive evaluation are denoted by immediate positions and postures (e.g., a closer position, more forward lean, more eye contact, and more direct orientation); increases in potency or status are denoted by greater degrees of postural relaxation; and increases in responsiveness by greater activity (e.g., facial activity, speech intonation, or speech rate). (36 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cross-cultural similarity and difference in interpersonal behavior.

It is suggested that certain aspects of interpersonal behavior are common to different cultures while certain other aspects change from culture to culture. 8 types of interpersonal behavior are defined; it is predicted that they can be arranged in a circular order according to the size of their coefficients of intercorrelation. The population investigated consists of a sample of 633 married couples living in Jerusalem, Israel, and belonging to 2 cultural groups: one originating from Europe and the other from the Middle East. It was found that the predicted circular order is the same in both groups. On the other hand the size of specific correlation coefficients varies for the 2 groups and appears to be related to group differences in cultural values. Cross-cultural similarity and difference are traced to the sequence of development of interpersonal concepts during socialization and to the influence of cultural values on the formation of these concepts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal and nonverbal behavior in judgments of facilitative conditions.

Investigated the effects of different verbal counseling styles, selected nonverbal behaviors, and client sex on facilitative conditions of the counseling relationship. The verbal counseling style included an affective and a behavioral interactive communication style. The nonverbal behaviors were eye contact, smiling, head nodding, and trunk lean forward. Male counselors interviewed both male and female clients (20 undergraduates). The results demonstrate that certain nonverbal behaviors were related to the 3 facilitative conditions. However, the effects on the relationship characteristics were modified by interactions with other variables. In some instances, the nonverbal behaviors had debilitating effects rather than the facilitating effects that were expected. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coronary-prone behavior pattern and interpersonal aggression.

An overt behavior pattern called Type A has been implicated in the etiology of coronary heart disease. Pattern A is often characterized in terms of 3 components: competitive achievement striving, time urgency, and aggressiveness. The noncoronary-prone Pattern B is defined as the relative absence of Type A characteristics. Experimentation has shown that 2 of the components of Pattern A—achievement striving and time urgency—emerge only when appropriate situations confront susceptible individuals. The present research was designed to show that the aggressiveness component is also elicited when the Type A individual is challenged by appropriate environmental circumstances. Male undergraduates were exposed to a situation that did or did not threaten their sense of competence and mastery. An opportunity was then given to administer an electric shock to a confederate involved in the threat. In Study 1 with 23 As and 25 Bs as determined by the Jenkins Activity Survey, the instigation procedure increased aggression among As but did so to a lesser degree among Bs. In Study 2 with 38 As and 43 Bs, a similar instigation difference between As and Bs occurred, along with a larger difference in a frustration-only condition. Findings are discussed in terms of Pattern A as a response style for maintaining and asserting control over the physical and social environment. Consideration is also given to possible associations between Pattern A traits and biochemical processes that characterize coronary disease. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Introverts' and extraverts' responses to nonverbal attending behavior.

Examined the different responses of 52 male undergraduate introverts and extraverts (as determined by the Extraversion scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire) to 2 types of helper nonverbal attending. One half of the Ss viewed a listener intensely attending (leaning forward) and one half viewed the listener in an upright position. Results indicate that (a) introverts rated the listener higher than did extraverts, independent of his posture; (b) the listener in the forward attending posture was viewed by all participants as more attentive; and (c) the extraverts who viewed the listener in the upright position rated him as more threatening than did the introverts in either condition or the extraverts viewing the listener in the forward position. In no case was the listener in the forward attending posture rated more negatively than the listener sitting upright. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The mitigation of interpersonal behavior.

Theorists since D. Bakan (1966) have advocated the importance of mitigation for successful adaptation within the interpersonal domain. Although mitigation has previously been conceptualized as a balance between agency and communion (interdimensional mitigation), the circumplex framework suggests that mitigation may also be conceptualized as a balance within agency and a balance within communion (intradimensional mitigation). In the two present studies, participants collected records of their interpersonal behavior and affect subsequent to their social interactions for a period of 20 days. Random coefficient procedures were then used to examine these two contrasting models of mitigation in the prediction of affect. No empirical evidence of interdimensional mitigation was found. The findings suggest that agency and communion were each mitigated intradimensionally through moderate levels of behavioral expression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation of nonverbal behavior to client reactions.

Sixteen therapists each saw a volunteer client for a single counseling session. During a videotape review the clients recorded their reactions and the therapists recorded their perceptions of client reactions to each therapist intervention. Client nonverbal behaviors (speech hesitancies, vertical and horizontal head movements, arm movements, leg movements, postural shifts, adaptors, illustrators, and smiles) were examined to determine whether they were consistently associated with client reactions. The results indicated that horizontal head movements were associated with client reports of supported and therapeutic work reactions and were also associated with therapist perceptions of therapeutic work reactions; vertical head movements were associated with client reports of supported reactions; and speech hesitancies were associated with therapist perceptions of therapeutic work reactions. The results are discussed in terms of implications for practice and further research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Power moves: Complementarity in dominant and submissive nonverbal behavior.

Two studies examine complementarity (vs. mimicry) of dominant and submissive nonverbal behaviors. In the first study, participants interacted with a confederate who displayed either dominance (through postural expansion) or submission (through postural constriction). On average, participants exposed to a dominant confederate decreased their postural stance, whereas participants exposed to a submissive confederate increased their stance. Further, participants with complementing responses (dominance in response to submission and submission in response to dominance) liked their partner more and were more comfortable than those who mimicked. In the second study, complementarity and mimicry were manipulated, and complementarity resulted in more liking and comfort than mimicry. The findings speak to the likelihood of hierarchical differentiation (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in nonverbal behavior: Dimensions of style.

Style, which is also known as expressive movement, refers to the way in which behavior is performed. Two studies were conducted to develop measures of style, explore their dimensionality, and assess the validity of the dimensions. In the 1st study, Ss' style was rated by peers in everyday situations. A factor analysis produced 4 dimensions—Expressiveness, Animation, Expansiveness, and Coordination—which were internally consistent, stable over time, and stable across raters. In the 2nd study, style was assessed both by trained raters and by peers. There was evidence for the convergent validity of the dimensions: Within-trait, cross-method correlations were of a magnitude similar to those typically found in personality research. Sex differences and relationships with other personality traits, including masculinity–femininity, were also examined. Implications for person perception are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Encoding of nonverbal behavior by high-achieving and low-achieving children.

40 adults viewed silent videotapes of high- and low-achieving children and estimated the level of understanding revealed by each child. 40 4th–5th graders had earlier encoded understanding or not understanding of a lesson by employing only nonverbal responses. The encoding was either spontaneous or deliberate (role play). Results show that observers accurately differentiated between understanding and not understanding in both the spontaneous and deliberate conditions. Furthermore, in the spontaneous conditions, high achievers were perceived as understanding more than low achievers in both easy and difficult lessons, and females were perceived as understanding more overall than males. Achievement level and sex did not, however, yield a main effect in the deliberate encoding conditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)