Androgyny and helping behavior.

Suggests that sex differences found in previous studies of how bystanders' help in emergency situations may have been due to Ss' following sex-role expectations for this type of situation. To study this possibility, 78 male and 82 female undergraduates, classified by the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) as either androgynous or sex-typed, participated in an experiment in which a "victim" choked on food. Ss were either alone with the victim, with 4 other same-sex confederates, or with 4 other mixed-sex confederates. Data on speed of helping and/or proportion of Ss helping show (a) more help by males than by females, (b) more help in S-alone conditions than in larger group conditions, and (c) more help by androgynous than by sex-typed Ss. The pattern of direct, indirect, or no help differed between sex-typed males and females but not between androgynous males and females. Questionnaire data support the notion of diffusion of responsibility for the group-size effect for helping. Several of the sex effects suggested that instrumental competence is the crucial variable in dealing with emergencies. Results also suggest that such competence is due to masculinity rather than sex per se. Findings provide substantial construct validation for androgyny theory and for the BSRI as a measure of androgyny. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex-based models of androgyny: A further cognitive elaboration of competence differences.

Study 1, with 95 undergraduates, examined tolerance for ambiguity, the degree to which people suspend the attribution of meaning to unclear stimulation. Sex-role development was assessed through masculinity and femininity scales derived from the Adjective Check List. Androgynous females were less tolerant of ambiguity than nonandrogynous females, a difference not found for males. Study 2, with 530 undergraduates, confirmed the reliability of these effects. Study 3, with 426 undergraduates, also included the administration of the Chapin Social Insight Test and a measure of ability to read facial expressions. Data suggest that low ambiguity tolerance mediates social competence only in androgynous females. Female androgynes with a lower tolerance for ambiguity (a) showed high facial-affect decoding skill and (b) demonstrated high social cognition that would allow decoded information to be used for competent social action. Low tolerance for ambiguity was found to facilitate a positive relation between facial-decoding skill and social cognition only for androgynous females. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex Role Orientation, Self-Disclosure, and Gender-Related Perceptions.

The level of self-disclosure and the sex-role orientation of 104 males and 91 females was determined in order to assess the impact of these characteristics on interpersonal judgments of gender-related behavior. The subject's own level of disclosure was found to have an impact on perceptions of males and females represented to be moderately high and moderately low in disclosure. Those more similar were viewed to be better adjusted, more likable, and preferred partners in an experiment. There was a failure to find differential standards in the evaluation of male and female disclosure, and a subject's sex role orientation (androgynous or sex role stereotyped) had no effect on perceptions. Gender, however, did have an impact on judgments made and interacted with the gender of the individual perceived. Male subjects rated male and female individuals differentially, whereas female subjects did not. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role identity, peer evaluation of competition, and the responses of women and men in a competitive situation.

A 2 (male vs female)?×?2 (peer approval vs disapproval of competition)?×?4 (sex-role identity: masculine, feminine, androgynous, undifferentiated) design was used with 78 female and 67 male students who were randomly assigned to approval/disapproval conditions. Sex-role identity was measured using the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. Results reveal effects of sex-role identity and interactions of sex and peer evaluation of competition on performance and related variables. Masculine and androgynous groups had higher expectancies for performance than feminine groups, better objective performance, and greater perceived success than feminine or undifferentiated Ss of either sex. Men and women in the masculine and androgynous groups did not differ from each other in performance, affect, or cognitions. The interactions of sex and peer evaluation of competition revealed that women responded more positively on all measures to approval than disapproval, whereas men's responses were largely unaffected. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Socially undesirable sex-correlated characteristics: implications for androgyny and adjustment

Since current measures of sex-role style, such as the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, assess only positive, socially desirable attributes, a set of socially undesirable but sex-typed characteristics was developed and examined in relation to the Bem categories. Data from 100 male and 100 female undergraduates show that androgynous males endorsed the fewest and undifferentiated males endorsed the most numbers of these undesirable characteristics. Feminine-typed females were least likely to use undesirable masculine self-attributes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Creativity, masculinity, femininity, and three models of psychological androgyny.

Five empirically derived indices of creative self-concept correlated positively with several indices of psychological masculinity in 85 female and 105 male undergraduates and somewhat negatively with indices of psychological femininity among males and females. Among the measures used were the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and Adjective Check List. Production on the Alternate Uses Test correlated positively with masculinity and negatively with femininity in a subset of 50 males explicitly instructed to "be creative." As a reflection of this positive association between masculinity and creativity indices, Ss defined as masculine or androgynous, using conventional median-split methods, obtained significantly higher creativity indices than conventionally defined feminine or unclassifiable Ss. Results are discussed in terms of (a) the applicability of balance, additive, and multiplicative models of androgyny to the study of creativity; (b) the factorial complexity of several currently used masculinity and femininity scales; and (c) possible conflicts between sex-role expectations and the self-concepts of creative females and apparent congruencies between sex-role expectations and the self-concepts of creative males. (85 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role identity, marital satisfaction, and response to behavioral marital therapy.

Explored the relationships among masculinity, femininity, marital satisfaction, and response to behavioral marital therapy (BMT) using 44 married nonclinic couples (mean ages of males and females 33.7 and 31 yrs, respectively), 54 maritally distressed clinic couples receiving BMT, and 18 maritally distressed clinic couples placed on a waiting list; the mean ages of males and females in both distressed clinic groups were 32.1 and 29.9 yrs, respectively. Ss completed the Marital Adjustment Scale and masculinity and femininity scales derived from the California Psychological Inventory. Results indicate that for each sex, both femininity and masculinity were significantly correlated with self-reported marital satisfaction; the magnitude of the correlations between femininity and marital satisfaction was higher than the correlations between masculinity and marital satisfaction. Among clinic couples, androgyny was the least frequent sex-role identity for either husbands or wives; conversely, among nonclinic couples, there were more androgynous husbands and wives than there was any other sex-role type. In the clinic group, both husbands and wives showed statistically significant but small increases in masculinity after receiving 10 wks of BMT. Masculinity and femininity level prior to treatment also significantly predicted response to BMT. The potential importance of both masculinity and femininity in successful marriages is highlighted, and treatment implications are discussed. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ego identity, intimacy, sex role orientation, and gender.

Assessed identity and intimacy in 40 male and 40 female university students, using a semistructured interview and a rating manual. Ss were also administered the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Results show that for males, identity was related to masculinity and intimacy was related to femininity. For females, identity was also related to masculinity; there were more high-intimacy females than males. While high identity/high intimacy was not contingent on androgyny (as hypothesized), proportionately more androgynous than nonandrogynous Ss were in this category. Results lend support to the hypothesis that it is desirable and beneficial for each sex to integrate aspects of the other gender's sex type. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in schizophrenia: Timing or subtypes?

Reviews evidence for sex differences in the epidemiology, symptom expression, and premorbid social competence of schizophrenia. The data present a general picture of poor premorbid competence, early onset, typical schizophrenia in males, and good premorbid competence, late onset, atypical schizophrenia in females. Two main competing models emerge to account for these sex differences: a timing model and a subtype model. Other interpretations, including misdiagnosis of affective disorders as schizophrenia and the overlay of general sex-role styles on psychopathology, are also examined. (2? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influences of sex roles on the development of learned helplessness.

160 college students participated in an experiment concerning the relationships among sex roles, sex, and learned helplessness. Included in each of the 4 following sex role types were 20 males and 20 females: androgynous, masculine sex typed, feminine sex typed, and undifferentiated. Half the Ss in each sex role type were given unsolvable concept formation problems (helpless condition); the other Ss were given solvable concept formation problems (nonhelpless condition). Sex of experimenter was counterbalanced across sex of S, sex role type, and experimental condition. As predicted, the 4 sex role types responded differently to the helpless condition. Feminine-sex-typed and masculine-sex-typed Ss showed cognitive and motivational deficits as well as dysphoric mood in the helpless condition; helpless androgynous Ss showed only dysphoric mood; and undifferentiated Ss were unaffected by the helpless condition. This pattern of results was found for both males and females and was unrelated to sex of experimenter. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Physical attractiveness in social interaction: II. Why does appearance affect social experience?

In a continuation of the research by the 1st author and colleagues (see record 1981-10397-001), 43 male and 53 female college seniors completed a diary of social interactions over 7–28 days, a short form of the Texas Social Behavior Inventory, a measure of fear of rejection or trust, and measures of social skills including the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule and Social Avoidance and Distress Scale. Pictures of the Ss were rated for physical attractiveness by other undergraduates. For males, physical attractiveness related positively to the quantity of social interaction with females and negatively to that with males; for females, attractiveness did not relate to the quantity of socializing. Attractiveness related positively to the affective quality of social experience for both sexes. Attractive males were more assertive and were lower in fear of rejection by the opposite sex, whereas attractive females were less assertive and were lower in trust of the opposite sex. For both sexes, assertiveness related positively to the quantity and quality of social participation. Fear of rejection led males to interact less with females and more with males and to have poorer quality interactions overall. Social competence mediated part of the influence of beauty on males' interaction patterns. For females, the effects of social competence on social interaction were opposite to those of attractiveness, suggesting that they have independent influences. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in moral reasoning.

Explored the possibility that socialization into different sex roles for men and women may contribute to the observed sex difference in moral development. 40 undergraduates were classified as either masculine, feminine, or androgynous according to the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and were administered the Moral Judgment Interview (MJI). For half the Ss, the central character in the MJI dilemmas was a male and for the remaining half, a female. Results reveal that males, when judging from the perspective of a female character, provided reasons for her actions congruent with the Stage 3 level of moral reasoning. However, for the same action portrayed by a male character, reasons for his behavior were in accord with Stage 4. No difference for the female judges was found between the characters of either sex. Regardless of the protagonist's sex, Ss scored at Stage 3. Ss' moral reasoning did not differ according to their sex-role classification. Males, however, held more strongly than females the belief that male decisions on morality are based on law-and-order reasoning, and female decisions are made from an emotional perspective. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology and the reconciliation of women's double bind: To be feminine or to be fully human.

The thesis is developed that femininity in a social context which values competence and individual achievement presents conflicts for women for whom the results are ambivalence, fear of success, guilt and anxiety. An androgynous conception of sex roles and the consequent implications for child rearing are discussed. The role presently played by psychologists in instructing students and advising parents is described and judged to be inadequate. The responsibility of the psychologist in contributing to a resolution of sex-role conflicts for both men and women is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in interaction style as a product of perceived sex differences in competence.

Observed the interaction styles of 72 male and 72 female university students while they worked in 4-person, mixed-sex groups on a discussion task. In some groups, Ss were only given information about each other's names and gender. In this circumstance, males were perceived by themselves and other group members to be higher in competence than females. Males also engaged in a greater amount of active task behavior than females, who exhibited a greater amount of positive social behavior than males. In other groups, Ss' competency-based status was manipulated by providing false feedback that they were high or low relative to their group in intellectual and moral aptitude. High-status Ss were then perceived to be more competent and engaged in more active task and less positive social behavior than low status ones. In this condition, no sex differences were obtained on perceived competence or on active task or positive social behavior. Findings support the idea that the gender differences obtained in interaction when status was not specified were partially a function of Ss' belief that the sexes differ in competence. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Love and sex role stereotypes: Do macho men and feminine women make better lovers?

Examined the relation of sex and sex-role orientation to self-reported feelings and behaviors of love. It was hypothesized that (a) sex role would have a greater effect on love feelings and behaviors than sex, and (b) androgynous individuals would experience love differently than sex-typed individuals. Data were gathered from 100 male and 136 female college students who identified themselves as being in a love relationship. Ss completed a battery of questionnaires, including the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Both hypotheses were supported. There were no sex differences in self-reported love. Androgynous Ss differed from masculine Ss on awareness of love feelings, expression of love, nonmaterial evidence of love, toleration of the loved one's faults, and the total expression of love in their relationship. The androgynous Ss differed from feminine Ss on awareness, willingness to express feelings, and toleration of faults. In all comparisons, androgynous Ss were more loving than sex-typed and undifferentiated Ss. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological androgyny and stressful life events.

55 female and 22 male undergraduates completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, a stressful life-events (SLE) questionnaire, and some general questions on adjustment. Ss were also asked to rate the SLEs they had experienced in the prior 12 mo along the dimensions of desirability, amount of change, anticipation, control, and meaningfulness. As hypothesized, androgynous Ss rated their SLEs as less undesirable than other Ss, but this result held only for females. Undifferentiated Ss rated their SLEs as less meaningful than other Ss, and androgynous Ss rated themselves as happier than other Ss. Of the 5 examined dimensions, only meaningfulness was significantly related to happiness. Results may be related to the differential access to and/or use of social support systems by persons of different sex types. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences, androgyny, and approach responses to erotica: A new variation on the old volunteer problem.

In Study 1, 52 male and 41 female college students were ostensibly given a choice between a hard-core, "lustful" film and a soft-core, "loving" film. Consistent with predictions, results indicate relatively less approach of the lustful theme film by females. Study 2 was a field experiment in which 43 female and 41 male college students were contacted by telephone and asked to volunteer for an experiment involving erotica or one involving perception of geometric figures. Females were less likely than males to volunteer for a study involving erotica, regardless of whether it was described as hard- or soft-core in nature. Results for Ss who had completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory indicated that the effect was obtained only for sex-typed (vs androgynous) Ss. The possible influence of S self-selection on laboratory studies in this area is considered. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The nonverbal display of psychological androgyny.

Attempted to determine how individual differences in sex-role orientation, as assessed by the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, were related to undergraduates' display of nonverbal behaviors indicative of "masculinity" and "femininity." Smiling, gazing (feminine behaviors), interrupting, and filled pausing (masculine behaviors) were coded for sex-typed males and females and androgynous males and females assigned to either an instrumental situation or an expressive situation in 36 same-sex dyads. Analyses of nonverbal behavior showed that androgynous Ss showed a blend of both masculine and feminine behaviors. The blend was the product of the addition of cross-sex behavior and deletion of some sex-consonant behavior. In contrast, sex-typed Ss showed more cross-sex behavioral avoidance and more sex-consonant behavioral cohesion. Results are discussed in terms of S. L. Bem's (1974, 1975) and J. T. Spence and R. L. Helmreich's (1977) conceptions of masculinity and femininity. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Integrating evolutionary and social exchange perspectives on relationships: Effects of gender, self-appraisal, and involvement level on mate selection criteria.

Two studies examined which traits males and females desire in partners at various levels of relationship development in an attempt to integrate evolutionary models (which emphasize sex differences) and social exchange models (which emphasize self-appraisals). In Study 1, male and female students specified their minimum criteria on 24 traits for a date, sexual partner, exclusive dating partner, marriage partner, and 1-night sexual liaison. They also rated themselves on the same dimensions. Sex differences were greatest for casual sexual liaisons, with men's criteria being consistently lower than women's. Men's self-ratings were generally less correlated with their criteria for a 1-night stand, as well. Study 2 replicated the findings of Study 1, adding several modifications, including a measure of Ss' sex typing. Sex typing had few effects. The advantages of combining social psychological and evolutionary perspectives are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)