Decarbonising power generation in China—Is the answer blowing in the wind?

This paper examines the current situation of wind industry development, evaluates the potentials of GHG mitigation and identifies the key determinants of scaling up wind power deployment in China. China has doubled its wind capacity every year for the past 4 years, the total installed capacity reached 12 Gigawatts (GW) and surpassed the 10-GW target 2 years ahead of schedule in the national plan for renewable energy development [38], [71], [87],and would reach 100–120 GW by 2020 according to the government’s new energy plan. It may become the biggest wind power generation and wind turbines manufacturing country of the world in the next years if the abundant wind resources and enormous domestic market can be harnessed with appropriate policies and efficient technology. The recent positive move in vigorous development of wind power in China implies that the total installed capacity will far exceed the targets of the government’s 2007 renewable energy plan. However, the prosperous Chinese wind market has also revealed some worrisome signals and weakness [28], [58], such as low capacity factor and frequent outage of wind farms, inadequate grid infrastructure, long distance transmission, low quality of turbines, adverse price bidding, nepotism in wind farm developer selection process and regulatory uncertainty and policy inconsistency which all conspire to hinder effective power generation in the massively new installed wind capacities. A coherent policy framework is required for creating enabling environment for accelerating wind energy penetration and state-of-art technology deployment in the country. It is argued that institutional, financial and technical capacity will need to be cemented to exploit the huge potentials of wind resources to meet the rapidly growing demand for electricity in China in the coming decades with minimised environmental implications.     

Wind power and photovoltaic power: How to improve the accommodation capability of renewable electricity generation in China?

China's wind curtailment and photovoltaic curtailment was one of the prominent issues in 2014, and the renewable curtailment worsened in 2015. With the rapid growth of renewables, the phenomenon of the insufficiency in renewable accommodation capability is becoming more and more serious in 2016. In that case, the problem of the insufficient accommodation capability is pointed out by analyzing China's development requirements. The renewable power generation scale, the renewable power consumption, and the restrictions on the renewable electricity generation are discussed from the China's market perspective. Meanwhile, the legal environment, the planning requirement, the institutional setting, and the policy tools are introduced from the perspective of governmental regulation. An empirical analysis, a cause analysis and a trend analysis are illustrated before explaining the problem of renewable curtailment and proposing a solution for enhancing the accommodation capability. According to the analysis results, the solution for addressing the wind curtailment and PV curtailment is offered with respect to the technology, the institution, the legislation, and the political aspect. Through the research, the research conclusions are drew finally and the corresponding policy recommendations are put forward.     

What hinder the further development of wind power in China?—A socio-technical barrier study

Promoting wind power is a long-term strategy of China to respond to both energy shortage and environmental pollution. Stimulated by various incentive policies, wind power generation in China has achieved tremendous growth, with the cumulative installed capacity being the largest worldwide for five consecutive years since 2010. However, obstructed by various barriers, wind power provides only 2.6% of national electricity generation in China, despite the strong support from the government. From a socio-technical transition perspective, this paper aims to systematically analyze the barriers hindering the further development of China's wind power. A wind power niche model is established to illustrate the complex interactions among actors in the wind power industry and electricity supply regime. Then, qualitative content analysis is adopted to process the related evidence and data, and four categories of socio-technical barriers are identified, including technology, governance, infrastructure and culture barriers. The study shows that various interrelated barriers form a blocking mechanism which prohibits the further development of wind power in China. Policy suggestions are proposed to eliminate the barriers and further empower the wind power niche. The lesson learned from China can offer useful references for other economies to promote wind power industries of their own.     

China’s wind,biomass and solar power generation: What the situation tells us?

As the largest developing country, China has abundant wind, biomass and solar energy resources. Under the large demand for electricity and the shortage of fossil energy, it is essential to develop renewable energy generation in China. This paper analyzes the resources, scale, market operation, profitability and policies of China’s wind, biomass and solar power generation and gives a discussion of the investment risks in the current situation. It is expected that the analysis in this paper could be helpful for the potential investors to make decision.     

Impacts of renewable energy regulations on the structure of power generation in China – A critical analysis

China is facing a number of energy-related challenges such as shortage of electricity supply and environmental pollution. The Government recognized the important role the renewable energy plays in the power generation structure. As a result, a series of supporting policies, laws and regulations have been issued to boost the renewable energies in China. This paper provides a critical analysis of the policy framework for the renewable energy in China and its impacts on the power generation structure. The relevant policy documents, including the most recent government work report delivered by Premier Wen Jia-bao during the Third Session of the 11th National People’s Congress (NPC) in March 2010 are analyzed. The patterns of renewable energy developments are found strongly correlated with the promulgation of relevant policies.     

What are the key drivers of MAC curves? A partial-equilibrium modelling approach for the UK

Marginal abatement cost (MAC) curves are widely used for the assessment of costs related to CO₂ emissions reduction in environmental economics, as well as domestic and international climate policy. Several meta-analyses and model comparisons have previously been performed that aim to identify the causes for the wide range of MAC curves. Most of these concentrate on general equilibrium models with a focus on aspects such as specific model type and technology learning, while other important aspects remain almost unconsidered, including the availability of abatement technologies and level of discount rates. This paper addresses the influence of several key parameters on MAC curves for the United Kingdom and the year 2030. A technology-rich energy system model, UK MARKAL, is used to derive the MAC curves. The results of this study show that MAC curves are robust even to extreme fossil fuel price changes, while uncertainty around the choice of the discount rate, the availability of key abatement technologies and the demand level were singled out as the most important influencing factors. By using a different model type and studying a wider range of influencing factors, this paper contributes to the debate on the sensitivity of MAC curves.     

Which is the best solar thermal collection technology for electricity generation in north-west India? Evaluation of options using the analytical hierarchy process

This study of concentrating solar thermal power generation sets out to evaluate the main existing collection technologies using the framework of the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). It encompasses parabolic troughs, heliostat fields, linear Fresnel reflectors, parabolic dishes, compound parabolic concentrators and linear Fresnel lenses. These technologies are compared based on technical, economic and environmental criteria. Within these three categories, numerous sub-criteria are identified; similarly sub-alternatives are considered for each technology. A literature review, thermodynamic calculations and an expert workshop have been used to arrive at quantitative and qualitative assessments. The methodology is applied principally to a case study in Gujarat in north-west India, though case studies based on the Sahara Desert, Southern Spain and California are included for comparison. A sensitivity analysis is carried out for Gujarat. The study concludes that the linear Fresnel lens with a secondary compound parabolic collector, or the parabolic dish reflector, is the preferred technology for north-west India.     

Does a small difference make a difference? Impact of feed-in tariff on renewable power generation in China

This study investigates the effectiveness of regionally differentiated feed-in tariffs (FIT) for the development of renewable energy in China. By using a spatial regression discontinuity design, we estimate the impacts of regionally differentiated FITs on the outcome indicators of wind and solar power generation, such as utilization rate, installed capacity, power generation, and hours of operation. Our findings show that FIT implementation plays an important role in promoting renewable energy development. A small difference in the tariff rate leads to statistically significant differences in outcome indicators among regions. Our results suggest that regionally differentiated FITs might help mitigate the overproduction of wind electricity in regions with abundant wind resources but low electricity demand. In addition, we conclude that enlarged tariff gap among regions can lead to greater impact on increasing installations of renewable power generation facilities in resource-poor regions.     

Learning curves for harnessing biomass power: What could explain the reduction of its cost during the expansion of China?

To explain the factors influencing the cost of biomass power in China, we applied an improved model of learning curves in this paper. The impact of cumulative installed capacity of biomass power and other factors on the cost of biomass technology were investigated. The results showed that installed capacity expansion has led to significant cost reduction. Meanwhile, the effect of economies of scale was observed in the analysis of generation cost. The ownership structure of the firm and the size of the developer had no influence on the learning effects and stronger policy support may, ironically, produce negative incentive effects on technology improvement.     

The prospective of coal power in China: Will it reach a plateau in the coming decade?

Coal power holds the king position in China's generation mix and has resulted in ever-increasing ecological and environmental issues; hence, the development of the electric power sector is confronted with a series of new challenges. China has recently adopted a new economic principle of the “new economic normal,” which has a large effect on the projection electricity demand and power generation planning through 2020. This paper measures electricity demand based upon China's social and economic structure. The 2020 roadmap presents China's developing targets for allocating energy resources to meet new demands, and the 2030 roadmap is compiled based upon an ambitious expansion of clean energy sources. Results show that electricity demand is expected to reach 7500 TWh in 2020 and 9730 TWh in 2030. Coal power is expected to reach its peak in 2020 at around 970 GW, and will then enter a plateau, even with a pathway of active electricity substitution in place.     

Electroplated Zn–Ni nanocrystalline alloys as an efficient electrocatalyst cathode for the generation of hydrogen fuel in acid medium

Energy conversion and renewable energy are the valuable research fields for the future of the energy. Synthesis of electroplated thin film of low cost elements and their alloys is promising nanomaterials for energy conversion. Electroplating of Zn–Ni alloys were performed using natural products such as cysteine and gluconate under direct current and ultrasound waves. The morphological and crystalline structures of the electroplated Zn–Ni alloys were examined using scanning electron microscopy, SEM, and X-ray diffraction techniques, XRD. The chemical composition of the electroplated Zn–Ni alloys was determined using energy dispersive X-ray analysis, EDX. The morphological structures of electroplated Zn–Ni alloys changed from smooth to coral reef-like and granular structures with the increase of Zn wt%. Electrocatalysis of the hydrogen evolution reaction using the electroplated Zn–Ni alloys was studied in 0.5 M H₂SO₄ medium by the cathodic polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, EIS. The electroplated Zn–9.5Ni cathode of cubic γ-brass arrangement exhibits the highest rate of hydrogen evolution reaction.     

What is the value of the option to defer an investment in Transmission Expansion Planning? An estimation using Real Options

In deregulated markets, Transmission Expansion Planning (TEP) is usually performed by a central network planner seeking to maximize social welfare. In doing that, the network planner commonly follows a traditional project valuation, considering a discounted cash flow (DCF) methodology, although incorporating uncertainty and reliability considerations. Accordingly, once the optimal transmission expansion plan is determined, the network planner frequently auctions the needed investments, obligating the investor to execute the expansion in the fixed (inflexible) terms defined in the bidding process. A key problem is that DCF does not take into account the responses of the planner when uncertainties are resolved because DCF evaluates the project with the information available today. In TEP, managerial flexibility may be valuable because optimal decisions may change over time with the release of new information. Transmission investors may want to defer or expand according to such information. The aim of this article is to estimate the value of adding some flexibility in TEP through real options. In particular, by means of using a real-option approach with binomial trees, we study the benefits for a social network planner of having the option to defer some transmission investments. Our results suggest that incorporating flexibility in TEP may increase social welfare.     

CO2-free hydrogen as a substitute to fossil fuels: What are the targets? Prospective assessment of the hydrogen market attractiveness

Hydrogen is usually presented as a promising energy carrier that has a major role to play in low carbon mobility, through the use of fuel cells. However, such a market is not expected in the short term. In the meantime, hydrogen may also contribute to reduce carbon emissions in diverse sectors: oil refining, low carbon mobility through the industrial deployment of advanced biofuels, natural gas consumption, and methanol production. According to the targeted market, objective costs are rather different; and so is the reachable mitigated CO₂ amount.     

Improved cookstoves in rural India: how improved are they?: A critique of the perceived benefits from the National Programme on Improved Chulhas (NPIC)

The National Programme on Improved Cookstoves (NPIC) was started by the Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (MNES), Government of India, in 1985 to achieve the twin objectives of fuelwood conservation and smoke reduction in kitchens. NPIC has overseen the installation of 28 million improved cookstoves, saving nearly 20 million tons of firewood per year. These achievements, though seemingly impressive, are not realistic as they are based on certain assumptions, particularly regarding the life expectancy of stoves. This paper examines the various assumptions made in such calculations and tries to arrive at some realistic numbers regarding fuelwood savings, which can be used to evolve a policy for refining the NPIC further.     

Study of the KNO3–LiNO3 and KNO3–NaNO3–LiNO3 eutectics as phase change materials for thermal storage in a low-temperature solar power plant

For heat storage applications, the solid–liquid phase changes of the LiNO₃–KNO₃ and LiNO₃–KNO₃–NaNO₃ mixtures of eutectic compositions have been investigated by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and with a home built calorimeter working on large samples – typically 500 g. The design of the new calorimeter matches at best the geometry and the thermal transfers in the industrial application. The kinetics of crystallization has been particularly studied. Density measurements of the salts in the liquid state allowed to calculate the volumetric storage capacity.     

Which is the preferable biogas utilisation technology for anaerobic digestion of agricultural crops in Ireland: Biogas to CHP or biomethane as a transport fuel?

The utilisation of anaerobic digestion to produce biogas as an energy source is a mature technology in many European countries but is yet to be developed in Ireland. In 2009, the EU issued the Renewable Energy Source Directive 2009/28/EC which requires a 20% share of renewable energy sources (heat and electricity) in final energy consumption for all member states, respectively, including a 10% share of biofuels in the transport sector by 2020. The introduction of biogas to produce power and electricity in the form of CHP technology and biomethane as a transport fuel can help Ireland achieve the mandatory targets set by the directive. The key focus of the paper is to determine the optimum small to medium scale biogas technology and the impact the introduction of that technology infrastructure will have on renewable energy targets for Ireland. In terms of feedstock, agricultural sources such as energy crops and slurry offer a sustainable input to the anaerobic digestion process. The crop rotations under consideration consist of different arrangements of grass silage, maize silage and barley. Grass silage is found to be the most suitable crop for biogas energy production while biogas upgrading to biomethane as a transport fuel has the optimum technology potential in Ireland. To fuel a car operating on biomethane, 0.22 ha of grass land is required annually. Full scale national development of 5% of the area under grass in Ireland will contribute 11.4% of renewable energy to the total final transport energy demand by 2020, surpassing the target set by the Renewable Energy Source Directive 2009/28/EC.