Correlations between color attributes and children's color preferences

This study examined the role of color attributes (lightness and saturation) on children's color preferences for interior room colors. It also investigated children's most preferred colors among each of the five major hue families in the Munsell color system using scale‐models. Previous color preference studies have typically been done with small color chips or papers, which are very different from seeing a color applied on wall surfaces. A simulation method allowed for investigating the value of color in real contexts and controlling confounding variables. Forty‐five color samples were displayed on scale‐models to 63 children ages 7–11 years old. This study identified children's most preferred colors among each of the five major hue families in Munsell color system. It also demonstrated that saturation was positively correlated with children's preferences in the red, green, blue, and purple hue families. In the yellow hue family, interestingly, lightness has a positive correlation with preferences. Children's gender differences were found in that girls prefer red and purple more than boys. These findings lead to color application guidelines for designers to understand better color and eventually to create improved environments for children and their families. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 39, 452–462, 2014     

Color preferences for different topics in connection to personal characteristics

Studies on color preferences are dependent on the topic and the relationships with personal characteristics, particularly personality, but these are seldom studied in one population. Therefore a questionnaire was collected from 1095 Dutch people asking for color preferences about different topics and relating them to personal characteristics. Color preferences regarding different topics show different patterns and significant differences were found between gender, age, education and personality such as being technical, being emotional or being a team player. Also, different colors were mentioned when asked for colors that stimulate to be quiet, energetic, and able to focus or creative. Probably, due to unconsciousness of contexts, many people had no color preference, a result that in the literature seldom is mentioned. Blue was the overall favorite color; however, most males chose for blue (25%) while most females had no color preference (18%). Black was the overall favorite color for clothing, mainly chosen by females (40%), while males primarily chose blue (27%). For building interiors subjects preferred white. For moods, subjects preferred white for being quiet or being able to focus, red for being energetic and had no color preference for being creative. It is concluded that color preferences are dependent upon the topic, and personal characteristics. The findings are important for architects, interior designers, fashion designers and product designers to have a basic idea of preferred colors for different objects by different types of people. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 40, 62–71, 2015     

Hue,chroma, and lightness preference in Chinese adults: Age and gender differences

Recent studies have shown cultural differences in color preference. However, the color preference of people in China, which was found to have its own pattern, was yet to be studied in depth. The current study investigated color preference and the associated age and gender differences in an adult national sample (N = 1290) to provide a culture‐specific characteristic of color perception. Participants rated how much they liked each of 31 colors (four chroma‐lightness levels of red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, and purple, plus three achromatic colors). We found a unique saturated color preference pattern characterized by red, cyan, and blue being preferred the most and orange as the least preferred chromatic color. The “red preference” phenomenon was observed in Chinese adults. Light colors were preferred the most in terms of chroma‐lightness level, followed by saturated, muted, and dark colors. The results of a principal component analysis of the 28 chromatic colors showed that blue‐green‐like colors (cool colors) constituted the largest proportion of color preference. The preference for orange and several dark colors increased with age, while that for bluish colors, purple, yellow, white, black, and light colors decreased. In terms of gender, women liked cyan, white, pink, and light colors and disliked red, orange, and dark colors more than men did. Our findings provide new empirical evidence about the color preference of Chinese and may offer some insight into the study of color preference and lay the foundations for future theoretical and practical research.     

Exploring color attractiveness and its relevance to fashion

Many studies have been conducted on the phenomenon of color preference, with the aim of identifying the key color preferences. Most of the previous studies have been placing blue in the most preferred position and green-yellow in the least preferred position. This study was conducted online and aims to showcase new color preference trends in the digital age. The colors selected for this study were based on the colors most frequently mentioned in previous color studies. Here, we show an evaluation using 14 Pantone colors as stimuli on the sample of (N = 146) participants based on pairwise adjectives (attractive-unattractive). Principal component analysis and other multivariate statistics were used to examine participants' color attractiveness. In addition, gender and age were examined to determine if they had an impact on color attractiveness ratings. Results show that participants tend to prefer distinctive colors (black, pink, yellow), but there are slight differences in preferences that could be related to the influence of gender and age.     

Comparative studies on color preference in Japan and other Asian regions,with special emphasis on the preference for white

The results of three surveys are presented. The first survey was carried out in four large cities in Japan, and the findings were analyzed by factor analysis and cluster analysis. The second survey was carried out in Seoul, Korea and Tokyo, Japan to determine color preference in the two countries, focusing on the preference for white. The last survey compared color preference in Taipei and Tokyo, also with emphasis on the preference for white. In these successive studies on color preference in Japan and other Asian cities, the subjects were mainly asked to choose from a color chart the three colors they liked most and the three they liked least, and to state the reasons for their choices. The results of Survey 1 showed that color preference could be influenced by differences in age, sex, and geographical region. Also factor analysis and cluster analysis indicated some relation between color preference and the subjects' life styles. Dual scaling analysis of the results of Surveys 2 and 3 indicated that each Asian area has unique color preference tendencies and that there are statistically significant differences in the frequency of selection of colors of certain hues and tones. However, a high preference for white was common to all areas, along with preferences for some other colors. These results thus demonstrated a common strong preference for white in three neighboring Asian areas. The reasons given for the choices suggested that besides the factors of age and sex, associative images based on environmental and cultural aspects may be an important factor influencing color preference. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Gender difference in color preference across cultures: An archetypal pattern modulated by a female cultural stereotype

A gender difference in color preference among British participants has been repeatedly reported, in which both males and females show a preference for blue‐green colors, while females express an additional preference for pink‐purple colors. To investigate the robustness of gender difference in color preference in a different culture, we tested 81 young adult Indians from a school of design and compared them to 80 young British students in Psychology. The 35‐item International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) and Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) questionnaires were also administered to explore possible links between personality traits, gender schemata, and color preferences. Results confirmed a gender difference in both cultures; participants collectively expressed a preference for cool over warm colors, while in addition females showed a preference for pink colors, with a warm bias for Indian females and a cool bias for British females. While these results extend gender difference to Indian culture and support the universality of an underlying pattern they also reveal a culture‐specific contribution essentially observed in females. In British participants, color preference was correlated exclusively with BSRI scores in females and overwhelmingly with IPIP scores in males; this gender‐specific pattern of correlation was not replicated in the Indian sample. Results point to an archetypal pattern of gender difference in color preference with a remarkable cross‐cultural similarity in men and a subtle but significant cultural difference in women whose origin is yet to be explained.     

Effects of hue,saturation, and brightness on preference

A study was done to investigate preference responses for foreground–background color relationships. To do this, 123 university undergraduates in Ankara, Turkey, were asked to view eight background colors selected from HSB color space on which color squares of differing hues, saturations, and brightnesses were presented. Subjects were asked to show the color square they preferred on the presented background color. Findings showed that colors having maximum saturation and brightness were most preferred. Blue was the most preferred hue regardless of background. The findings for preferences for foreground–background color relationships are also included in this article. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 27, 199–207, 2002; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.10051     

Object color preferences

In this article, we investigate how context influences color preferences by comparing preferences for “contextless” colored squares with preferences for colors of a variety of objects (e.g., walls, couches, and T‐shirts). In experiment 1, we find that hue preferences for contextless squares generalize relatively well to hue preferences for imagined objects, with the substantial differences being in the saturation and lightness dimensions. In experiments 2 and 3, we find that object color preferences are relatively invariant when the objects are (a) imagined to be the color that is presented as a small square, (b) depicted as colored images of objects, and (c) viewed as actual physical objects. In experiment 4, we investigate the possibility that object color preferences are related to the degree to which colors help objects fulfill particular functions or outcomes. We also discuss relations between our results and previous theories of color preference. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 38, 393–411, 2013     

A comparative study on perceptual evaluations of sports shoe exterior colors in Taiwan

We investigated consumer psychology, perception, and aesthetics in relation to sports shoe colors in Taiwan. Semantic differential rating (three emotional adjective pairs) and preference rating questionnaires were distributed among 512 university students to investigate whether their responses to various sports shoe colors differed. The results show that black is one of the most popular colors for sports shoes. The participants preferred designs that incorporated white as the secondary color and disliked those that featured green as the main and secondary colors. In addition, designs incorporating black or red as the main color with a bright color as the secondary color were considered modern. Black and white designs were perceived to be more suited to formal occasions. Furthermore, when the area of the main color exceeded that of the secondary color, the participants perceived a strong sense of simplicity, unless the colors were blue and green. The participants preferred two‐color over one‐color designs, and three‐color designs had a higher correlation with participant preferences. Women required more time than men to evaluate a sample. The men typically examined the samples from a frontal angle, whereas the women focused on the sides of the sample. The scoring scale was polarized (e.g., highest score for modern was ?10 and 10 for retro), rendering the values of the Pearson correlation coefficient analysis comparatively low, resulting in weak correlations between variables. However, the relative differences of these values retained referential value regarding objective quantification. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 40, 178–193, 2015     

Hue,saturation, lightness,and building exterior preference: An empirical study in Turkey comparing architects' and nonarchitects' evaluative and cognitive judgments

This study investigated architects' and nonarchitects' evaluative and cognitive judgments of color on building exteriors. Thirty architects and 30 high school teachers living in Izmir, Turkey participated in the study. The experiment had two phases. First, participants viewed eight images, in which the color of a building exterior was manipulated with hues selected from HSB (hue, saturation, and brightness) color space. Participants were then asked to rate each image on 7‐point semantic differential scales measuring preference (like–dislike), arousal (arousing–sleepy), naturalness (natural–artificial), and relaxation (relaxing–distressing). Second, participants viewed the same building in nine saturation and lightness levels for each hue and picked the most preferred lightness and saturation level for each hue. Findings showed that for a building exterior: (1) yellow and blue were the most liked colors, (2) some hues were rated as more arousing, more natural, and more relaxing over the others, (3) gender had an effect on color preference and semantic ratings of naturalness and relaxation, (4) architects and nonarchitects differed in their color preference and semantic ratings of arousal and naturalness, and (5) full bright and moderate to low saturated colors and full saturated and moderate to high bright colors were preferred more. The results have practical implications for architects and urban designers. A successful coloration of a building exterior may increase its use frequency and economical value. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 33, 395–405, 2008     

Cross preferences for colors and shapes

Preferences for colors and geometric shapes vary considerably across individuals. Studies have demonstrated these variations in preference separately for colors and shapes, but the relationships between preference variations for colors and shapes are not yet known. By measuring individual preferences for basic colors and shapes, we found that color preferences and shape preferences were partly, but systematically, correlated. People who preferred some simple shapes (e.g., cone, pyramid) tended to prefer some light or warm colors (e.g., yellow, orange). In contrast, people who preferred some complex shapes (e.g., scrambled truncated‐pyramid, scrambled pyramid) tended to prefer some dark or cold colors (e.g., blue, blue‐green). That is, people who like “simple” or “complex” visual features might tend to like “light or warm” or “dark or cold” visual features. These results indicate that individual preferences for colors and shapes might not be independent, but could be correlated and intertwined to some extent. We suggest that the semantic information associated with colors and shapes underlies the cross preferences. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 41, 188–195, 2016     

Dependence of the color appearance of some flowers on illumination

Seven flower colors perceived by five color experts using visual color measurement under 2800 K warm white fluorescent lamps, 3500 K plant growth lamps, and 6500 K light‐emitting diodes (LEDs) were compared with those under 6500 K fluorescent lamps, which represented illuminants in florist shops. Fluorescent lamps (6500 K, 1000 lx) were found to be effective for displaying flower colors and were used as the standard condition. The colors of flowers generally shifted in the same direction as those of the illuminants in CIELAB space. The color differences were highest under the 3500 K fluorescent lamp at both 500 and 2000 lx. At 500 lx, the ΔE values under the 6500 K LED were higher than those under the 2800 K lamp. The C* and ΔE values revealed that the 2800 K lamp was unsatisfactory for purple‐blue and purple flowers and was more suitable for floral displays at lower illuminance. Under the 3500 K lamp, the highest color distortion occurred in cool‐colored flowers, but C* increased for purple‐blue and purple flowers. The 6500 K LED tended to decrease C* for warm‐colored flowers under both illuminances, but it was effective for displaying purple‐blue and purple flowers with increased C*. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 39, 28–36, 2014     

Perceived sexual receptivity and fashionableness: Separate paths linking red and black to perceived attractiveness

Abstract: Previous research has documented that the colors red and black influence perceptions of attractiveness for men viewing women. Perceived sexual receptivity has been identified as a mediator for the red‐attraction link, but there has been no research to date on the mechanism linking black to attractiveness. We conducted an experiment to test whether separate, unique mediators were responsible for color effects on attractiveness. We hypothesized that red would lead to attractiveness via perceived sexual receptivity, and that black would lead to attractiveness via perceived fashionableness. The data supported our central hypotheses, suggesting that color stimuli can lead to similar outcomes, but through different psychological processes. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 39, 208–212, 2014     

Effects of color on expectations of drug effects: A cross‐gender cross‐cultural study

To study the role of color in expectations of drug effects, 80 Chinese participants (40 females and 40 males) were asked to classify each of seven single colored capsules and six differently colored two‐piece capsules into one of four classifications of drug effects. The results from the Chinese sample were also compared with that from four other cultural groups studied elsewhere. The Chi‐square test results showed that all seven single colored capsules yielded non‐chance distributions in classifications of drug effects, with six showing specific effects; and that five two‐colored capsules had non‐chance distributions, with four significantly associated with specific effects. Notable gender differences were observed in the expectations of drug effects. While the cross‐group comparison revealed consistent red‐stimulant and blue‐depressant associations across the five cultural groups, disagreements existed for other colors among the groups. The findings emphasized the importance of color in drug design and administration in support of drug differentiation, medication adherence, and drug efficacy, and suggest gender and cultural implications on the basis of color to achieve better drug effects. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 42, 124–130, 2017     

The impact of color preference on adolescent children's choice of furniture

It is widely believed that children will choose furniture that has the same color as their preferred color. Furthermore, for different categories of furniture, the color they preferred for furniture is consistent. A study of 508 adolescent Chinese children between the ages of 12 and 16 has been carried out to explore whether color preference influences their choice of furniture when they are provided with various color options (16 chromatic and five achromatic colors). This work tested six items of furniture in two functional spaces (study and bedroom space). Findings indicate that adolescent children's color preferences did indeed affect their furniture choice, but the extent varies with the categories of furniture. Furthermore, this study reveals that children's preference for furniture in different functional spaces is slightly different. Some effects of gender and age were also explored. This work discusses the implications of adolescent color preference and color choice for children's furniture color design.     

Individual differences of unique hue loci and their relation to color preferences

Loci of the four unique hues (red, green, blue, and yellow) on the equiluminant plane on the color display and three preferred colors were obtained from 115 normal trichromats. We sought possible correlations between these measures. Different unique hue loci were not correlated with each other. The three preferred colors were not correlated with each other. We found five combinations of significant correlation between a preferred color and unique hue settings, yet the overall tendency is not very clear. We conclude that individual differences in color appearance measured by unique hues and color preferences measured by asking for favorite colors may not be predicted from each other or even within a category because the differences in the earlier visual mechanisms can be compensated for and these high‐level measures can be influenced by learning and experience. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 29, 285–291, 2004; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.20023     

A systematic approach of predicting color preference on the basis of gray relational grade

During the color design process, it is critical to create diversified color schemes for various consumer groups. It is also important to allow members in a design team to brainstorm for creative ideas. A theory of inspecting natural color elements was proposed in this study based on the CIE 1976 (L*,a*,b*) (CIE 1976) color space and the fuzzy c‐means clustering method. A calculation model was built to determine people's preference for colors based on a serialized system. To determine which factors affect the prediction of consumers' preference for a series of products, a gray relational color preference system was used in combination with gray relational grade so that a designer can obtain reasonable prediction results. The proposed system recommends not only the optimal colors for a product but also the optimal color scheme for a series of products.     

Color emotions for multi‐colored images

We investigate the emotional response to colors in ordinary multicolored images. In psychophysical experiments, using both category scaling and interval scaling, observers are asked to judge images using three emotion factors: activity, weight, and heat. The color emotion metric was originally developed for single colors, and later extended to include pairs of colors. The same metric was recently used in image retrieval. The results show that people in general perceive color emotions for multi‐colored images in similar ways, and that observer judgments correlate with the recently proposed method used in image retrieval. The intended usage is in retrieval systems publicly available on the Internet, where both the user and the viewing environment is unknown, which requires novel ways of conducting the psychophysical experiments. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 36, 210–221, 2011;     

Color separation for colored fiber blends based on the fuzzy C‐means cluster

Colored fibers can be blended in a certain proportion to achieve a specific color. It is a very hard task for the colorist to find a good recipe to meet the final product without the aid of computer. In this article, a color separation method for the colored fiber blends is discussed to substitute for some manual work. The fuzzy C‐means cluster is a way to group the color in the colored fiber blends image. The distance index, which is a key factor during the fuzzy C‐means cluster process, is calculated in the RGB color space and the HSV color space with some transformation. The final experiment result proved that the colors of each pixel in the blends' image can be replaced by corresponding cluster center associating colors in the HSV color space, and the main texture as well as the main color information about the fibers in the image is preserved. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2012     

Did the CIE get it right? A critical test of the CIE color domains for signal lights

Since 1951, the Commission Internationale de L'Eclairage (CIE) has provided influential guidance on the choice of the most suitable colors for colored signal lights. In 1994, the CIE reviewed its 1975 recommendations for signal colors and has recently revised them. These revised recommendations have now been published as a CIE standard. This article reports an experiment designed to test those recommendations and to provide data on the reliability of signal color recognition under a range of conditions. Thirty young subjects (aged 18–28 years) and thirty older subjects (aged 50–64 years) named the colors of lights, the colors of which were located on or close to the color boundaries defined by the CIE for red, yellow, white, green, and blue colors. The angular diameter of the light was one min of arc. In a second experiment, half the subjects named the colors of the lights when the angular diameter was 5 min of arc. Observations were made under both dark and light adaptation. Red signals, especially those located in the CIE Class A domain, were reliably recognized under all conditions. Yellow near the red boundary of the CIE yellow domain tended to be confused with red, especially under dark adapted conditions at low signal illuminances. White was not a reliable signal color and was often confused with yellow, except for a white located near the blue boundary of CIE white. Green colors located near the blue boundary of the CIE color domain for green were less reliably recognized than those of longer dominant wavelength. Blue signal colors located within the CIE Class A blue domain were more reliable than expected, except at very low signal illuminances. There were significant differences in the performance of older compared to younger subjects, some of which can be explained by color shifts occurring as the result of the yellowing of the lens of the eye with age. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Col Res Appl, 26, 109–122, 2001