Research on the location characters of urban color plan in China

“Urban color” has gradually become one of the hot topics in the field of urban planning in China, and many cities have done research and developed planning practices. On the basis of the comparisons of those cities, numbers and figures show that most of them locate in the eastern part of China. Through the introduction of the Chinese urban planning system and implementation procedure, the authors indicate the status of the urban color plan and analyze the maneuverability of items on color in related laws and regulations. Next, we discuss the reasons of the distribution character with the examples of urban color plan of Yiyuan and architectural façade rebuilt of Guidu Holiday Inn in Suzhou. Finally, the authors point out that under the present Chinese system, urban color planning is the result of the game between urban planners and architects who come out from the rapid boom of urban construction and economy development. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 33, 68–76, 2008     

Method of urban color plan based on spatial configuration

The present Chinese urban color plan inclined to assume the way of Japanese, which is based on the theory of the Geography of Color founded by Lenclos. However, both my interview in 2004 and my urban color plan in 2006 show that the way of planning from color to color can hardly meet the requirement of the rapidly developing Chinese cities, and the authority should leave more creative space to the designers. Researching the color scheme of Kirchsteigfeld done by Werner Spillmann in 1994 was very enlightening. Findings of other researchers also helped me to set up a systematic planning method. Considering the complexity of color in urban space, the present way of planning simply by color combination is not sufficient. Spatial configuration is the core of color plan, and the authority should emphasize the color pivot and vision rank to encourage creativity in real design. This article discusses the systematic method of color planning when considering Chinese urban plan system, and with typological means. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2013     

Analysis of cross‐cultural color emotion

This study investigates the relationship between color perceptual attributes and color emotions, as well as the influence of different cultural backgrounds. Totally 214 color samples were evaluated on 12 emotion variables by subjects from seven different region groups in the psychophysical experiment. By factor analysis, it was found that three factors were sufficient to represent 80 “region‐emotion” variables. For each variable, there is no distinct difference among different region groups. The 12 emotion variables could be divided into four categories, namely, activity index, potency index, definition index, and temperature index. Factor scores were further calculated to study the determinants on each factor. The analysis showed that the three factors were mainly related to chroma, lightness, and hue, respectively. It was concluded that chroma and lightness were the most important factors on color emotion, whereas the influences of hue and cultural background were very limited. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 32, 223–229, 2007     

To see or not to see: Importance of color perception to color therapy

Color therapy, healing through color, supposedly works through the physical exposure to color. In two studies, we assessed stress and anxiety reduction after color exposure using a commercially available relaxation-through-color routine. Participants either completed the routine by looking at the accompanying color disks or at a white patch. In study 1 (longitudinal), 60 participants completed the routine three times, each testing session separated by a week. In study 2 (cross-sectional), 63 participants completed half of the trials once. In both studies, we recorded a decrease in stress and anxiety levels comparing before-after scores. In study 1, we recorded incremental decreases with each week. Crucially, decreases were the same whether participants (a) physically saw colors or not, and (b) completed the full or shortened version. We conclude that other factors but physical exposure to color explain changes in affective states associated with this and probably other color therapy routines.     

Effects of correlated color temperature on spatial brightness perception

The relationship between lamp color characteristics and brightness perception is not well known. In this study, nine lighting environment with correlated color temperature (3000 K, 5000 K, and 8000 K) and illuminance (1000 lx, 300 lx, and 100 lx) were created. Both the side by side visual matching and spatial brightness scaling experiments are designed to verify the effects of correlated color temperature on spatial brightness perception. The results of the study show that lighting with high correlated color temperature will have stronger spatial brightness perception than lower ones. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2011     

Insight into color aesthetics from probabilistic perception modeling

A model of human visual perception is described. An observer is represented having no a‐priori preference for color or geometric properties of the objects in his visual field. The model includes computational representations of effectiveness and efficiency of visual memory allocation that are both based on likelihood. In the computations, the colorimetric quantities color difference, chroma, and lightness are of fundamental importance, being the state variables of model. Computer experiments are carried out verifying the validity of the model. Multiple corroborations between model outcome and commonly observed phenomena are pinpointed, indicating that aesthetical experience denotes an optimal state of visual system as to processing efficiency.     

Visual and instrumental assessments of color differences in automotive coatings

The interest in gonioapparent pigments (metallic, pearlescent, interference, or diffractive) has increased in the last few years, especially for applications in the automotive industry. To assure a proper characterization of colors with gonioapparent pigments, commercial devices have appeared to characterize the color in different geometries, which are called multiangle spectrophotometers. As the gonioapparent pigments and multiangle instruments are relatively new, no studies exist regarding the instrumental‐based procedure followed in the industry, and if the results provided are in agreement with the observer perception. Consequently, the main objective of this study was to examine the correlation of the instrumental color differences with visual assessments. The instrumental color difference was calculated with the color difference formula AUDI2000 (specific for this sector) between the pairs of similar samples of three types of coated panels (solid, metallic, and pearlescent). The values measured by a telespectroradiometer in a directional lighting booth and the colorimetric values obtained by means of a multiangle spectrophotometer BYK‐mac were considered for this purpose. Additionally, a visual experiment was conducted to quantify the color difference by using the gray‐scale method. The results revealed that an acceptable instrumental correlation existed despite the visual and the instrumental correlation being worse. In particular, it was checked that observers accepted a larger number of color pairs, that is, the visual color difference was smaller than the tolerance demanded by the industry (derived from AUDI2000). © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 41, 384–391, 2016     

Investigation of metallic color perception using real‐world materials

Metallic colors have a unique appearance of glossiness with features such as highlights, contrast, and reflections on their surface, and therefore, metallic objects are very attractive to humans. Especially, gold, silver, and copper colors are familiar metals used as decorative materials, coins, and other furnishings. However, the mechanism and condition of metallic perception have not been fully investigated. There are a few studies for investigating metallic perception using rendered patches or images, but there is no study using real‐world objects. In our previous study, we developed a simple representation technique that made real objects appear to be made of gold by projecting a solid color onto a target nonmetallic object. By using the representation technique, in this study, we have further investigated the perception of metallic appearance such as gold, silver, and copper using real‐world materials, and analyzed the difference between these metallic perceptions. Our results indicate that the perception of the metallic object is different for gold, silver, and copper. Our new findings are as follows: the glitter required for the perception of gold and silver becomes an obstacle to the perception of copper; the metallic perception reveals that learning experience might be strongly affecting; and luminance adjustment is sensitive to the perception of metallic objects.     

Multiple roles of color information in the perception of icon‐type images

Despite the ubiquity of icons in computing and mobile devices, the role of color in icon‐based interface design has yet to be fully elucidated. This study began by conducting a card sorting experiment to determine the importance of color in the perception of commercial icons, as opposed to the simpler icons typically used in a laboratory setting. The study also sought to ascertain the importance of color when considered alongside other visual attributes in the general perception of icons. Participants were then asked to answer preset questions as a means of determining the relationship between the known color properties (e.g., hue, saturation, and brightness) of icons and their functional meaning, effectiveness in conveying meaning, and visual attractiveness. Finally, the speed and accuracy was assessed by which participants recognized well‐known icons rendered using familiar and unfamiliar colors. The empirical results identified color as an important attribute in the process of sorting icons, far exceeding other visual attributes including shape, complexity, pictorial style, and orientation. Nonetheless, it appears that color is not necessarily dominant in the initial stages of sorting. The results also revealed that color is closely related to visual attractiveness but largely irrelevant to effectiveness in the conveyance of meaning. The study also confirmed that correct color information is crucial to naming accuracy and the speed at which icons are recognized. Finally, the results indicate that icons lacking a unique symbol as a cue to recognition rely heavily on their signature color for identification. This study opens up several avenues of research by which to enhance our understanding of the functional role of color in icon perception.     

A systematic approach of predicting color preference on the basis of gray relational grade

During the color design process, it is critical to create diversified color schemes for various consumer groups. It is also important to allow members in a design team to brainstorm for creative ideas. A theory of inspecting natural color elements was proposed in this study based on the CIE 1976 (L*,a*,b*) (CIE 1976) color space and the fuzzy c‐means clustering method. A calculation model was built to determine people's preference for colors based on a serialized system. To determine which factors affect the prediction of consumers' preference for a series of products, a gray relational color preference system was used in combination with gray relational grade so that a designer can obtain reasonable prediction results. The proposed system recommends not only the optimal colors for a product but also the optimal color scheme for a series of products.     

Impact of the adapted white point and the cultural background on memory color assessments

With their inherent ability of serving as an internal reference, memory colors provide a very powerful concept in the evaluation of color rendering properties of white light sources with respect to visual appreciation. Recent results for example suggest fairly good correlations between memory-based color quality metrics and the observers' general color preferences. However, due to technical limitations in the design of the underlying psychophysical experiments, they generally lack the explicit inclusion of realistic viewing and adaptation conditions, which is supposed to have a nonnegligible impact on the model prediction performance. In addition, intercultural effects might play a crucial role in the context of memory colors. For these reasons, the current article investigates the impact of both the adapted white point and the observers' cultural background on memory color assessments in order to contribute to a better understanding of these dependencies and their interactions. For this purpose, the color appearance rating results of Chinese and German observers were collected for a selection of 12 different familiar test objects assessed under two different adaptation conditions at 3200 K and 5600 K, respectively. From the statistical analysis of the experimental data, it is shown, in accordance to previous studies, that the impact of the observed intercultural deviations is likely to be of no practical importance even though significance is found. Despite considerably larger effect sizes, the same must be concluded for the two tested adaptation conditions.     

Quantifying variations in personal color spaces: Are there sex differences in color vision?

We report a search for group differences in color experience between male and female subjects, focusing on the relative prominence of the axes of color space. Dissimilarity data were collected in the form of triadic (odd‐one‐out) judgments, made with the caps of the D‐15 color deficiency test, with lighting conditions controlled. Multidimensional scaling reduced these judgments to a small number of dimensional‐weight parameters, describing each subject's sensitivity to color axes, i.e., how much each axis contributes to the inter‐color dissimilarities perceived by each subject. Normal trichromatic subjects in two age bands were examined, teenagers and university students, and in both cases males placed significantly less weight on a ‘red‐green’ axis, and more on ‘lightness’. We consider the implications and possible explanations. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 29, 128–134, 2004; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.10232     

Maximum number of discriminable colors in a region of uniform color space

Continuing a discussion by Kuehni, this note examines the problem of fitting as many as possible colors in a 1‐JND radius sphere such that each pair of colors is separated by at least 1 JND. Kuehni announced nine. A first estimate yields a maximum of 13, but this is too many because colors populating adjacent spheres will be too close to each other. Accordingly, I derive the maximum number, , of discriminable colors per unit volume of color space, and then formally compute from this number packing density a number of colors inside the unit sphere. That estimate, nearly 6, will undoubtedly erode when discrete color points are chosen within the unit sphere. Kuehni's estimate of 9 is too high. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2016     

Investigating color appearance in optical see‐through augmented reality

Color appearance for real objects has been studied over decades and it has been well modeled. However, in augmented reality (AR) environments, virtual content is added to a real background and a mixed appearance is perceived. In this research, we studied color appearance in AR and investigated the applicability of the CAM16 color appearance model, one of the most comprehensive current color appearance models, in an AR environment. Using a benchtop optical mixing apparatus as an AR simulator, objective measurements of mixed colors in AR were performed. Then a psychophysical color matching experiment was performed with combinations of mixed foreground and background colors. The results showed that CAM16 is not accurate in predicting the color appearance in AR environment; therefore, it was modified with the addition of chromatic simultaneous contrast, resulting in an improved fit to the AR experiment data. A second psychophysical color matching experiment was performed on a single display to compare the color perception in AR with color perception in real world from a single display.     

Visual customization: Diversity in color preferences in the automotive interior and implications for interior design

Evolving multimodal mobility needs influences established human–product relationships and requires a deeper insight into color preferences for car interiors. Hence, a study was conducted in which 204 members of a web contest created 1,265 designs. After a peer‐evaluation process, 53 most‐appreciated and 34 least‐preferred interior color compositions were identified and compared to identify patterns in color choices. Besides, visual lightweight design by layering of large interior components such as the seat, a modest use of color and patterns accompanied by repetition and the framing of the entire interior to create a feeling of spaciousness were found. Additionally, differences in the type of color between most and least favored color designs were found. Brown and beige occur more frequently among the top‐ than the worst‐rated designs. Larger surfaces are favored in lighter hues and smaller components in darker hues.     

Desaturation of color by environment light in cataract eyes

The visual perception of the cataract eyes is composed of three elements, color, brightness, and haze. The color element is related to the reduced transmittance of light at short wavelengths of crystalline lens, the brightness element to the reduced transmittance at entire region of wavelength, and the haze element to the opacity of the crystalline lens. Researchers pay attention to only the color and brightness elements when they discuss on the color perception by the cataract eyes. We will show in this article that the haze element is also related to the color perception. There exists always environment light in our living situation. Light comes to the eyes from every direction. When the light enters the cataract eye it is scattered by the opacity of the crystalline lens and overlaps on the retinal image of objects that the eye is looking at. The environment light is usually white in color, and it reduces the colorimetric purity of the objects. The color appearance of the objects desaturates. This purity change was confirmed colorimetrically by measuring colors of test patches with the cataract simulating goggles placed in front of the lens of a colorimeter. The desaturation was then confirmed psychophysically by subjects wearing the goggles, who matched two color patches with and without the goggles. The same experiment was done by a subject whose right eye was operated for the cataract and the left eye was before the operation. Desaturation of color was found, though the desaturation was not as strong as with the goggles. In another psychophysical experiment the subject did the heterochromatic brightness matching experiment by using his right eye and left eye, respectively, before and after operation. The results were interpreted that all the color patches presented were perceived as being less saturated by eyes having cataracts. The importance was pointed out that, when we do experiments on the color perception by elderly observers we should not neglect the effect of the environment light. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 33, 142–147, 2008     

Perceptual and emotional effects of light and color in a simulated retail space

This article aims to address two aspects of lighting often treated intuitively by designers in charge of creating retail atmospheres, that is, the impact of color and light distribution, as design variables. The study comprised a controlled experiment with a repeated measure design with three directions of lighting (front, overhead, and wallwasher), as the within‐subject factor and four color combinations of the walls (yellow‐blue, magenta, gray, and green‐magenta), as the between‐group variable. The perceptual (visually) and emotional responses of 184 participants revealed the interplay between light and color on these psychological outcomes. Specifically, the results showed that the overhead direction of lighting improves the appearance of the less favored color conditions, either in terms of lack of visual complexity (monochromatic) or color itself (gray). In turn, the wallwasher lighting emphasized these attributes, differing according to visual or emotional aspects. In retailing, emotional dimensions such as activation and evaluation are desired, and they were confirmed across all the lighting and color conditions of this study. The results provide designers with certain perceptual cues regarding colors and their lighting mode to create desirable impressions and affect in retail spaces.     

Lighting,indoor color,buying behavior and time spent in a store

Relationship between a store's lighting and indoor color and the measures of buying and time spent were studied with a study group of 440 men and 478 women who were 20–60 years old (M = 29.3, SD = 10.2). Two types of lighting (soft and bright) and 5 indoor colors (blue, yellow, green, red, and white) were used. Green color and the time spent in the store were statistically significant positive effects on product purchase. Time spent in the store was positively associated with soft lighting conditions, but negatively associated by red indoor color. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2011     

Manifestation of depressive tendency in color perception and colors utilized in creating a self‐portrait

There are a large number of studies on color and its influence upon human emotions, but there have been only a few studies on the correlation between color and depressive mental disorders. This study used color preference, association, and creation of self‐portraits to explore the relationship between color and depressive tendency. In this study, 337 freshman design students participated in the experiment, and the center for epidemiologic studies‐depression scale (CES‐D) was used to determine the extent of depression in the subjects. After classifying the subject as “depressive tendency” and “no depressive tendency,” the semantic differential scale and color association methods were used to explore the subjects' emotional, cognitive, and perceptive responses to Munsell 14 colors. In the final portion of the study, the 233 subjects created a colored self‐portrait. The main conclusions found by this study are: (1) when color is used to determine whether subjects have depressive tendency, then the three colors of Yellowish Red, Purple, and Dark Gray are important discriminant variables. (2) those who have depressive tendency (DT) or do not have depressive tendency (NoDT) have similar results in color association, except when viewing dark Gray in association with abstract concepts, wherein DT subjects chose more negative emotional words such as “hopeless,” “fear,” and “depression”; (3) among the 233 self‐portraits, the existence of depressive tendency correlated with the colors used on the face in the self‐portrait. From the above conclusions, this study finds that there is much association between depressive tendency and color perception. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 34, 84–92, 2009.