Problem structuring methods in military command and control

In an authorized military hierarchy organization, the procedure of problem solving must be co-ordinated with the tasks of planning, directing, and controlling. In most combat situations, problem solving knowledge is acquired from an expert (commander) or a single group of experts (staff) in a military organization. Therefore, these multiple actors (commander and the staff), multiple perspectives (multi-expertise and knowledge types), incommensurable and/or conflicting interests (resource allocation and distribution among staff planning), important intangibles (ambiguous quantitative or qualitative apparatus), and key uncertainties (unexpected internal and external situations) are part of unstructured problem. In this article, military strategy and tactics are acquired as case knowledge, rule knowledge, and heuristic knowledge content in terms of representing combat formations and planning mechanism to support problem structuring and the solution of military command and control. By doing so, this article presents a knowledge-based system architecture, including case base, rule base, heuristic base, and learning paradigm, for the military command and control procedure with strategic guidance (commander’s strategy and tactics) and tactical planning (staff plans generation) system functions in terms of implementing problem structuring methods in military command and control.     

Patch models and their applications to multivehicle command and control.

We introduce patch models, a computational modeling formalism for multivehicle combat domains, based on spatiotemporal abstraction methods developed in the computer science community. The framework yields models that are expressive enough to accommodate nontrivial controlled vehicle dynamics while being within the representational capabilities of common artificial intelligence techniques used in the construction of autonomous systems. The framework allows several key design requirements of next-generation network-centric command and control systems, such as maintenance of shared situation awareness, to be achieved. Major features include support for multiple situation models at each decision node and rapid mission plan adaptation. We describe the formal specification of patch models and our prototype implementation, i.e., Patchworks. The capabilities of patch models are validated through a combat mission simulation in Patchworks, which involves two defending teams protecting a camp from an enemy attacking team.     

Cognitive Automation for Tactical Mission Management: Concept and Prototype Evaluation in Flight Simulator Trials

This paper describes an approach to cognitive and cooperative operator assistance in the field of tactical flight mission management. A framework for a generic functional concept is derived from general considerations of human performance and cognitive engineering. A system built according to these human-centred design principles will be able to keep up with the change of situation parameters, in order to provide situational adapted operator assistance. Such a cognitive assistant system represents an approach to ensure the highest degree possible of situation awareness of the flight deck crew as well as a satisfactory workload level. This generic approach to mission management and crew assistance for military aircraft has been realised in different application domains such as military transport and air-to-ground attack. The Crew Assistant Military Aircraft is a functional prototype for the air transport application. Even applications in the domain of uninhabited aerial vehicles (UAV) are in reach. This paper mainly covers one state-of-the-art research and development activity in the domain of combat aircraft: the TMM – Tactical Mission Management System is an experimental solution for the air-to-ground attack role. The TMM has been implemented as a functional prototype in the mission avionics experimental cockpit (MAXC), a development flight simulator at ESG and evaluated with German Air Force pilots as subjects in simulator trials. Therefore, the TMM has been compared with a reference cockpit avionics configuration in terms of task performance, workload, situation awareness and operator acceptance. After giving an overview of the system concepts this paper reports on the experimental design and results of the simulator trial campaign.     

Impact of spatial auditory feedback on the efficiency of iconic human–computer interfaces under conditions of visual impairment

This paper investigates the addition of spatial auditory feedback as a tool to assist people with visual impairments in the use of computers, specifically in tasks involving iconic visual search. In this augmented interface, unique sounds were mapped to visual icons on the screen. As the screen cursor traversed the screen, the user heard sounds of nearby icons, spatially, according to the relative position of each icon with respect to the screen cursor. A software prototype of the design was developed to evaluate the performance of users in the search of icons within the proposed interface. Experiments were conducted with simulated visual impairments on volunteer participants to evaluate if the addition of spatial auditory feedback makes the interface more accessible to users with impaired vision. Results demonstrated that spatialization of icon sounds provides additional remote navigational information to users, enabling new strategies for task completion. Directions for future research are discussed and prioritized.     

A column-and-cut generation algorithm for planning of Canadian armed forces tactical logistics distribution

The military tactical logistics planning problem addresses the issue of distributing heterogeneous commodities (e.g., food, medical supplies, construction material, ammunition, etc.) to forward operating bases in a theatre of operations using a combination of heterogeneous transportation assets such as logistics trucks and tactical helicopters. Minimizing the logistics operating cost while satisfying the operational demands under time and security constraints is of high importance for the Canadian Armed Forces. In this study, a logistics planning model is developed to explore the trade-offs between the effectiveness and efficiency in military tactical logistics distribution. A mathematical optimization algorithm based on Column-and-Cut generation techniques is developed to find the fleet mix and size of transportation assets to meet different Quality-of-Support (QoS) parameters.     

基于Map Objects的军事标图系统关键性技术研究

随着现代科技术的不断发展,军事训练、作战指挥系统也逐渐实现了信息化建设,从而实现了军事指挥智能化、作战指令自动化等发展目标。军事标图作为信息化条件下军事指挥、作战的重要指挥系统,可以提升指挥系统成图速度,满足现代战争作战需求。在本文研究中,笔者将总结分析MapObjects地图应用组件的定义及基本结构,并深入探讨基于MapObjects技术的军事标图系统的关键性技术,旨在为设计基于MapObjects的完整军事标图系统提供相关技术参考。     

Building a Tool for Battle Planning: Challenges,Tradeoffs, and Experimental Findings

Use of knowledge-based decision aids can help alleviate the challenges of planning complex operations. We describe a knowledge-based tool capable of translating a high-level concept for a tactical military operation into a fully detailed, actionable plan, producing automatically (or with human guidance) plans with realistic degree of detail and complexity. Tight interleaving of planning, adversary estimates, scheduling, routing, attrition and consumption processes comprise the computational approach of this tool. Although originally developed for Army large-unit operations, the technology is generic and also applies to a number of other domains, particularly in critical situations requiring detailed planning within a constrained period of time. In this paper, we focus particularly on the engineering tradeoffs in the design of the tool. An experimental comparative evaluation indicated that the tool's performance compared favorably with human planners. Alexander Kott is a Program Manager at Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). While performing the research described in this paper, he was the Director of R&D at Carnegie Group, Inc., and a Technical Director at BBN Technologies in Pittsburgh, PA. His work included development of algorithms and decision aids for dealing with dynamic planning and scheduling in constrained, uncertain and adversarial environments, and research in dynamic distributed decision-making systems, such as in military command and control. He earned his PhD from the University of Pittsburgh where he explored the use AI techniques for innovative design of systems. He can be reached at DARPA, 3701 N Fairfax Drive, Arlington, VA, 22203. Raymond Budd is a member of the technical staff at BBN Technologies. His areas of interest include knowledge representations, knowledge engineering, and planning and scheduling. He received a BS in computer science from the University of Pittsburgh. Contact him at BBN Technologies 1300 N. 17th Street, Suite 400, Arlington, VA 22209. Larry Ground is a senior analyst with Green River Associates, Inc. His research interests include development of tools for analysis and decision support of Army maneuver and logistics planning. Retired from the US Army as a Lieutenant Colonel, he served in a variety of command and staff positions and taught at the US Army Command and General Staff College. He is a Certified Professional Logistician by the International Society of Logistics. Contact him at Green River Associates, Inc., Fredericksburg, VA. Lakshmi Rebbapragada is a senior computer engineer at US Army CECOM Research, Development and Engineering Center (RDEC). Her research interests include application of advanced technologies to tactical planning, execution-based replanning, VA Standards for Ontology based Knowledge sharing re-use, and Network Centric Infrastructure for Command and Control. She is a member of the IEEE Standard Upper Ontology (SUO) Working Group. She has a Ph.D in High Energy Physics from Bristol University U.K. She can be contacted at PM UA NSI Battle Command, Bldg. 2405, Ft. Monmouth, NJ 07703. John Langston is a senior analyst with Austin Information Systems. He served in a variety of command and staff positions in the US Army, including extensive combat experience in the Republic of Vietnam. Retired as a Lieutenant Colonel, he is widely recognized for his extensive research and knowledge in the areas of military leadership and decision making and has contributed significantly to the development of automated battle planning tools. Contact him at Austin Information Systems, Whispering Woods Cove, Parkville, MO 64152.     

深度强化学习算法在智能军事决策中的应用

深度强化学习算法能够很好地实现离散化的决策行为,但是难以运用于高度复杂且行为连续的现代战场环境,同时多智能体环境下算法难以收敛。针对这些问题,提出了一种改进的深度确定策略梯度（DDPG）算法,该算法引入了基于优先级的经验重放技术和单训练模式,以提高算法收敛速度;同时算法中还设计了一种混合双噪声的探索策略,从而实现复杂且连续的军事决策控制行为。采用Unity开发了基于改进DDPG算法的智能军事决策仿真平台,搭建了蓝军步兵进攻红军军事基地的仿真环境,模拟多智能体的作战训练。实验结果显示,该算法能够驱动多作战智能体完成战术机动,实现绕过障碍物抵达优势区域进行射击等战术行为,算法拥有更快的收敛速度和更好的稳定性,可得到更高的回合奖励,达到了提高智能军事决策效率的目的。     

A System to Define and Allocate Health Care Resources on a Territory to Improve the Life Quality of the Populations in Developing Countries

In this paper the health resource allocation problem is discussed. An object-oriented system is proposed and its implemented prototype is illustrated. It consists of two parts: a Geographical Information System, which is able to acquire and store both geographical and social-epidemiological information (including the resource distribution on that territory), and a Decision Support System, able to decide, using optimization algorithms, the new resource allocation in order to obtain a quasi-optimal solution for the cost/benefit ratio minimization problem, after having fixed the goal (e.g., the decrease of the incidence of a given disease) and constraints (e.g., a fixed budget, a given set of available resources, etc.). The object-oriented database which is part of the system can simulate and store different scenarios, depending on the different goals and constraints defined in input, by means of a user friendly interface.     

面向军事群体的聚合及解聚可视化控制模型

作战编队是军事领域特有的军事群体组织方式,具有广泛的军事应用,针对战场态势中作战编队的聚合/解聚可视化问题,基于知识图谱及模型-视图-控制器(MVC)设计模式,提出了面向作战编队的聚合/解聚可视化控制模型,主要研究作战编队基于MVC的架构设计、作战编队基于知识图谱语义建模、基于主成分分析（PCA）的作战编队区域几何辅助对象构建、作战编队解聚/聚合ADLOD显示及地图比例尺控制以及作战编队聚合/解聚可视化模型的向量形式表征,该模型既弥补了军事标绘相关标准中作战群体方面研究的空白,也为联合作战态势多分辨率显示优化提供了基于作战编队聚合简化的新技术途径,同时,提供的可视化手段可加深对战场综合态势的认知,提升作战指挥决策水平,军事应用前景良好。     

无线Ad hoc网络组播协议的分析与军事应用

无线Ad hoc网络体系结构的特点使得该网络特别适宜军事战术通信，而无线Ad hoc网络的组播协议则是实现战术前沿态势感知(Situation Awareness-SA)和指挥控制(Command ＆ Control-C2)数据分发的有效手段。该文基于Ad hoc网络的军事应用背景，系统地分析和比较了多种无线Ad hoc网络组播协议，提出了军用战术Ad hoc网络组播协议设计的若干思考和一般原则。     

A theory of command language dialogue for a knowledge‐based human‐computer interaction

The flexibility and usability of graphic‐based HCIs can be increased by adding a natural language interface with command menus. Among the several other advantages, such embellishment offers the user an opportunity for direct expression of his or her behaviors, goals, intentions, and objectives along the continuum of the task knowledge. The existing graphic‐based HCIs that operate on active symbologies and icons assume the user's mental models to correlate with perceptual and cognitive levels of the task understanding. This obviously increases mental loads and the frustration of the human adapting to the system. In reality, the system should be designed to adapt to the user's behavior and skill level. In order to improve the current design of graphic‐based HCIs, we have formulated theories of command production language that will enhance the user's ability to interact with the system. The methods developed combine the theory of expert database with formal grammar to develop command‐production rules using a natural language dictionary prototype. We show that the commands are linear, regular, and symmetric, although conforming to the formal rules of grammar.     

Lessons from a comparison of work domain models: representational choices and their implications

As methods in cognitive work analysis become more widely applied, questions regarding the impact of modeling choices and similarities in modeling efforts across projects and domains are increasingly relevant. However, no explicit comparison of models of similar systems has been reported. This paper compares independently developed work domain analysis (WDA) models of two command and control environments. Similarities in model content and the types of nodes included provide evidence that WDA techniques can capture fundamental elements regarding purposes and constraints. These points of agreement provide a common starting point for developing work domain representations of military command and control systems. The comparison also revealed differences between the models. Although differences in content reflected differences in scope of coverage and level of detail, other differences corresponded to more fundamental choices in modeling approach. These included the treatment of sensors, level of integration in the model, and representation of particular abstract constraints. Examination of these more fundamental differences pointed to important degrees of freedom in how to represent a WDA and clarified the implications of these modeling choices for guiding design. Actual or potential applications of this research include aiding analysts in making work domain modeling choices as well as producing work domain models of command and control environments.     

Uncovering the requirements of cognitive work

OBJECTIVE: In this article, the author provides an overview of cognitive analysis methods and how they can be used to inform system analysis and design. BACKGROUND: Human factors has seen a shift toward modeling and support of cognitively intensive work (e.g., military command and control, medical planning and decision making, supervisory control of automated systems). Cognitive task analysis and cognitive work analysis methods extend traditional task analysis techniques to uncover the knowledge and thought processes that underlie performance in cognitively complex settings. METHODS: The author reviews the multidisciplinary roots of cognitive analysis and the variety of cognitive task analysis and cognitive work analysis methods that have emerged. RESULTS: Cognitive analysis methods have been used successfully to guide system design, as well as development of function allocation, team structure, and training, so as to enhance performance and reduce the potential for error. CONCLUSIONS: A comprehensive characterization of cognitive work requires two mutually informing analyses: (a) examination of domain characteristics and constraints that define cognitive requirements and challenges and (b) examination of practitioner knowledge and strategies that underlie both expert and error-vulnerable performance. A variety of specific methods can be adapted to achieve these aims within the pragmatic constraints of particular projects. APPLICATION: Cognitive analysis methods can be used effectively to anticipate cognitive performance problems and specify ways to improve individual and team cognitive performance (be it through new forms of training, user interfaces, or decision aids).     

Computer-aided prototyping for a command-and-control system usingCAPS

A case study that shows the feasibility of using computer-aided prototyping to validate a C³I system's requirements is presented, and the enabling technology is described. The C³I prototype developed has characteristics typical of embedded software, including distributed processing, hard real-time constraints, multiple, predefined hardware interfaces, and complex requirements. A color, multiwindow executable Ada prototype that can process tactical data from multiple interfaces in real time was generated. The prototype was used to get feedback about the proposed design's effectiveness, performance, and structure and to evaluate the soundness of the design decisions     

全局资源视图生成战术资源视图的方法研究

战术视图生成是从战役全局资源视图产生基于任务的作战视图，本文通过解决作战资源实体在作战任务上的聚类问题来生成战场战术态势图的基本要素之一——作战实体。基于功能能力、作战平台资源和作战任务的定义，提出了基于任务的作战资源实体生成方法。该方法包括两个部分：资源实体裁剪过程的数学描述以及作战资源实体分配到任务的匹配算法，并以联合战役为例，分析并设计了从联合战役作战资源的全局视图生成战术资源视图。     

Testing the effectiveness of icons for supporting distributed team decision making under time pressure

There has been minimal experimentation testing the effectiveness of icons (or interface features in general) on distributed team decision making. To overcome this deficiency, an experiment tested the effectiveness of a "send" icon to remind team members to send information to their teammates, and a "receive" icon to tell them when they had received information, for a simulated, military task. As predicted, the "send" icon was effective in maintaining information flow, particularly when time pressure was high and simulated teammates sent less information, because it reduced memory burden and supported proactive behavior. The "receive" icon was only effective in supporting decision accuracy when time pressure was low. As time pressure increased, participants' with the "receive" icon increasingly used a strategy of making decisions before reading the most important information, completely counter to expectations. These results illustrate the subtle, sometimes surprising way task characteristics (e.g., time pressure) can affect participants' strategies and, thereby, ify the positive effect of displays on performance. The experiment also examined other task characteristics and working memory capacity, and showed how the lens model equation (LME) helped explain all effects on decision accuracy.     

Tangible user interfaces for physically-based deformation: design principles and first prototype

We present design principles for conceiving tangible user interfaces for the interactive physically-based deformation of 3D models. Based on these design principles, we developed a first prototype using a passive tangible user interface that embodies the 3D model. By associating an arbitrary reference material with the user interface, we convert the displacements of the user interface into forces required by physically-based deformation models. These forces are then applied to the 3D model made out of any material via a physical deformation model. In this way, we compensate for the absence of direct haptic feedback, which allows us to use a force-driven physically-based deformation model. A user study on simple deformations of various metal beams shows that our prototype is usable for deformation with the user interface embodying the virtual beam. Our first results validate our design principles, plus they have a high educational value for mechanical engineering lectures.     

直升机机动飞行的数学描述及仿真

直升机机动飞行的研究对于直升机空战战术具有十分重要的作用,为此首先介绍了直升机机动飞行的数学描述及仿真方法,即在直升机三自由度模型下用数学方法对直升机机动飞行轨迹进行描述,得出完成机动动作需要施加在直升机上的控制指令,通过指令转换模型将控制指令转换为操纵直升机的操纵量,然后在直升机飞行动力学模型下对机动飞行进行仿真。然后分别对直升机"加速减速"机动和"障碍滑雪"机动科目进行了数学描述和机动飞行仿真,仿真结果验证了数学描述及仿真方法的可行性。