Measuring residual stresses in linear friction welded joints composed by dissimilar titanium

The Ti–5Al–2Sn–2Zr–4Mo–4Cr (Ti17) titanium alloy is the main material used in manufacturing blades and disks of aero engines, and it is always jointed with different microstructures for the design constraints. In this work, the residual stresses of linear friction welding of β Ti17 and α?+?β Ti17 are measured by contour method and the X-ray diffraction method. The welding-induced tensions were found to be greater on the β side than that on the α?+?β side, and had an obvious reduction in the weld centre. After the post weld heat treatment (PWHT) of 630°C for 3?h, all tensions on the β side relax to a very limited value while some new PWHT-induced compressions are found on the α?+?β side.     

On the thermo-mechanical loads and the resultant residual stresses in friction stir processing operations

In friction stir welding and processing both a thermal flux and a mechanical action are exerted on the material determining metallurgical evolutions, changes in the mechanical behaviour and a complex residual stress state. In the paper, the metallurgical changes are examined through numerical simulation and experiments to highlight and distinguish the effects of thermal and mechanical loadings. A particular focus is made on the residual stresses generated during the stir processing of AA7075-T6 aluminium blanks. The predictions of FE model are validated by experimental measurements. Lastly, this paper presents an in-process quenching of the processed blanks for improved mechanical properties and microstructure.     

Peening action and residual stresses in high-velocity oxygen fuel thermal spraying of 316L stainless steel

316L stainless steel powder was sprayed by a high-pressure high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) process. Effects of powder size and the pressure in the combustion chamber on the velocity and temperature of sprayed particles were studied by using an optical instrument, first, at the substrate position. A strong negative correlation between the particle temperature and the diameter was found, whereas the correlation between the velocity and the diameter was not significant. The pressure in the combustion chamber affected the velocity of sprayed particles significantly, whereas the particle temperature remained largely unchanged. In-situ curvature measurement was employed in order to study the process of stress generation during HVOF spraying. From the measured curvature changes, the intensity of peening action and the resultant compressive stress by HVOF sprayed particles were found to increase with the kinetic energy of the sprayed particles. The results were further used to estimate the stress distribution within the coatings. X-ray stress measurement revealed that the residual stress on the surface of the HVOF coatings is low and often in tension, but the stress inside the coatings is in a high level of compression.     

Relation between residual stress and Barkhausen noise in a duplex steel

The relation between residual stress and Barkhausen noise (BN) was evaluated in a duplex stainless steel. The residual stresses had been created to the test piece by local heating. Rms value, position of the maximum of the BN burst, its full width half maximum, power spectrum and pulse height distribution were characterised. All the parameters depended to some extent on the residual stresses and none of them was totally independent on the other parameters. The best parameter for the residual stress evaluation was the rms value of the BN amplitude. The rms value varied according to the total stress (macrostress+homogeneous microstress) in the ferrite phase. The stress component perpendicular to the direction of the magnetization had also some influence. Based on the results it is possible to evaluate the residual stresses of the ferrite phase of duplex stainless steels by the BN method.     

Internal residual stress measurement on inertia friction welding of nickel-based superalloy

The internal residual stress in the narrow inertia friction welding (IFW) welds of FGH96 nickel-based superalloy was measured with the contour method (CM). The as-welded internal hoop and axial residual stresses were obtained after two cuts and the detailed steps of the CM measurement were described. In addition, the hole-drilling method was used to obtain the surface stress. Furthermore, the internal hoop residual stress of a FGH96 superalloy IFW specimen after post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) was also measured with the CM after a single cut. The measured results show that the peak hoop residual stress is not symmetrical about the weld centreline. Axial residual stress on the outer surface at the weld centreline is compressive stress, while tensile stress appears on the inner surface, and it varies linearly along the thickness. The peak values of hoop tensile and compressive stresses decrease dramatically after PWHT.     

Effects of welding parameters on weld shape and residual stresses in electron beam welded Ti2AlNb alloy joints

In order to estimate the residual stresses in Ti₂AlNb alloy jointed by electron beam welding (EBW), a computational approach based on finite element method was developed. Meanwhile, experiments were carried out to verify the numerical results. The comparison between the simulation results and measurements suggests that the developed computational approach has sufficient accuracy to predict the welding residual stress distributions. The results show that the central area of the fusion zone suffers tensile stresses in three directions. When the other parameters remain unchanged, the focus current has great impact on the weld shape and size, and then affects the residual stress level significantly. Moreover, the thick plate full-penetrated EBW weld suffers near 1000 MPa tensile stress of Z-direction in the center of the fusion zone. The wider weld has lower tensile stress in Z-direction, resulting in lower risk for cracking.     

On the evaluation of residual stresses in bi-layer materials using the bent strip method

Numerous equations can be found in the literature for calculating residual stresses in plated metals and thin film materials using the bent strip method. The residual stresses predicted by these different equations were found to vary widely, and it is clear that not all of them can be correct. The linear-elastic relations for determining residual stresses in deposits of arbitrary thickness were therefore derived from first principles, and the results obtained here agree with earlier bi-metallic beam solutions if the residual stress terms go to zero. In the general case of a non-uniform through-thickness residual stress the problem is statically indeterminate, and conditions under which a constant uniform residual stress may be assumed are discussed. Common issues associated with using finite element models to analyze deposit stresses are also addressed, along with practical considerations for specimen design. The results given here can be used to calculate residual stresses in mechanically isotropic, linear-elastic metallic, ceramic, and polymeric films using the bent strip method.     

300M钢电子束预热与焊接复合加工后的残余应力测试

采用盲孔法测量了电子束预热与焊接复合加工300M超高强度钢板的残余应力分布。结果表明,垂直于焊缝方向的纵向残余应力以拉应力为主,横向残余应力以压应力为主,焊缝中心的最大纵向和横向残余应力分别为34.3和9.2 MPa;最大残余拉应力峰值出现在母材区,其应力值约为208.3 MPa,远低于母材屈服强度。沿焊接方向残余应力变化不大,可近似认为其分布基本稳定。     

An analysis of through-thickness residual stresses in aluminium FSW butt joints

In the paper, the results of a wide experimental campaign on friction stir welding (FSW) of aluminum alloys are reported. The attention was focused on the through-thickness residual stresses that occur on aluminum joints, after the welding process. In detail, using the hole-drilling method the residual stresses distribution in the zone close to the tool shoulder border of the joint advancing side, has been investigated; four different aluminum alloys and three different process conditions have been considered. The experimental analysis has shown that unlike traditional welding processes, the residual stresses are negative in the surface of the examined zone, and increase with depth until values of about 100–150 MPa that occur at a depth of about 0.5–1.0 mm. As expected, the maximum value of the residual stresses induced by the FSW process influences the mechanical behavior of the joint significantly, as it has been observed for the AA6082-T6 aluminum alloy by considering its static and fatigue resistance.Such results corroborate that the hole-drilling method, widely employed in the industrial field due to its simplicity and low cost, can be used for an accurate estimation of the maximum residual stresses that occur in an aluminum butt joint obtained by friction stir welding.     

Using Finite Element and Contour Method to Evaluate Residual Stress in Thick Ti-6Al-4V Alloy Welded by Electron Beam Welding

This work was to reveal the residual stress profile in electron beam welded Ti-6Al-4V alloy plates(50 mm thick) by using finite element and contour measurement methods.A three-dimensional finite element model of 50-mmthick titanium component was proposed,in which a column–cone combined heat source model was used to simulate the temperature field and a thermo-elastic–plastic model to analyze residual stress in a weld joint based on ABAQUS software.Considering the uncertainty of welding simulation,the computation was calibrated by experimental data of contour measurement method.Both test and simulated results show that residual stresses on the surface and inside the weld zone are significantly different and present a narrow and large gradient feature in the weld joint.The peak tensile stress exceeds the yield strength of base materials inside weld,which are distinctly different from residual stress of the thin Ti-6Al-4V alloy plates presented in references before.     

Effect of interpass temperature on residual stresses in multipass welds produced using low transformation temperature filler alloy

Weld filler alloys that exploit transformation plasticity through low austenite to martensite transformation temperatures offer an effective method of reducing residual stresses in strong steel welds. However, in multipass welds, the heat input from later weld passes may be insufficient to retransform prior welding passes, leading to the accumulation of thermally induced strains and elevated residual stresses. In this work, the residual stress distributions produced around arc welds fabricated with a martensitic weld filler alloy that transforms at a low temperature have been studied as a function of the number of passes deposited and the interpass temperature. It is found that when the interpass temperature is above the transformation temperature of the weld metal, the entire multipass weld transforms as a single entity, thus permitting the optimum exploitation of the transformation plasticity. In contrast, the deposition of new metal with a relatively low interpass temperature leads to increased residual stresses in the underlying layers, reducing or eliminating the beneficial stress states previously created.     

Uncertainty quantification in modelling welding residual stress and distortion

Abstract

Currently available welding simulation methodologies provide deterministic results for the best estimate of the input parameters, such as part geometry, processing conditions and material properties. If there is an uncertainty in any of the input parameters, then a reanalysis needs to be performed with perturbed values of each uncertain variable. However, there can be several hundred input parameters; therefore, the use of reanalysis in uncertainty quantification in welding modelling can be time consuming or computationally prohibitive, especially for three-dimensional modelling. This paper explores the application of design sensitivity analysis in quantifying uncertainty in welding residual stress and distortion computations. Analytic sensitivities are computed by direct differentiation, resulting in a very efficient computational approach. The variation of temperature, welding residual stress and distortion with respect to processing parameters is computed from a first order Taylor expansion of the model output. The approach is demonstrated in a three-dimensional model of a singe pass weld and validated by comparing sensitivity analysis results to reanalyses.     

Effects of zonal heat treatment on residual stresses and mechanical properties of electron beam welded TC4 alloy plates

Zonal heat treatment(ZHT) was conducted in situ to 14.5 mm-thick TC4 alloy plates by means of defocused electron beam after welding. The effects of ZHT on residual stresses, microstructures and mechanical properties of electron beam welded joints were investigated. Experimental results show residual stresses after welding are mostly relieved through ZHT, and the maximum values of longitudinal tensile stress and transverse compressive stress reduce by 76% and 65%, respectively. The tensile strength and ductility of welded joint after ZHT at slow scanning velocity are improved because of the reduction of residual stress and the microstructural changes of the base and weld metal. ZHT at fast scanning velocity is detrimental to the ductility of welded joint, which is resulted from insufficiently coarsened alpha phase in the fusion zone and the appearance of martensite in the base metal.     

添加铜填充层的Ti-15-3钛合金与304不锈钢电子束焊接过程中的温度与应力场(英文)

采用铜填充金属对Ti-15-3钛合金与304不锈钢进行电子束焊接,对Ti/Fe和Ti/Cu/Fe接头在焊接过程中的温度场和应力场进行数值模拟和试验测量。结果表明,高斯旋转体热源适用于电子束焊接过程的模拟。温度场对于焊缝中心呈非对称分布,钛侧的温度高于不锈钢侧的。热应力同样呈非对称分布,残余拉应力主要存在于不锈钢侧。铜填充金属的加入,降低了焊接过程中的峰值温度、温度梯度以及残余应力,纵向和横向残余拉应力分别降低了66MPa和31MPa。从温度场和应力场的角度可以看出,铜合金是一种较好的Ti-15-3钛合金与304不锈钢电子束焊接的填充金属材料。     

Quantifying residual stresses in resistance spot welding of 6061-T6 aluminum alloy sheets via neutron diffraction measurements

Residual strains of resistance spot welded joints of 6061-T6 aluminum alloy sheets were measured in three different directions denoted as in-plane longitudinal (σ₁₁), in-plane transversal (σ₂₂), and normal (σ₃₃). The welding process parameters were established to meet or exceed MIL-W-6858D specifications (i.e., approximately 5.7 mm weld nugget and minimum shearing force of 3.8 kN per weld confirmed via quasi-static tensile testing). Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and optical microscopy (OM) were performed to determine grain size and orientation. The residual stress measurements were taken at a series of points along the weld centerline at depths corresponding to the weld mid-plane and at both 1 mm below the top surface of the plate and 1 mm above bottom surface. The residual stresses were captured on the fusion zone (FZ), heat affected zone (HAZ) and base metal (BM) of the resistance spot welded joint. Neutron diffraction results show residual stresses in the weld are approximately 40% lower than yield strength of the parent material. The maximum variation in residual stresses occurs, as expected, in the vertical position of the specimen because of the orientation of electrode clamping forces that produce a non-uniform solidification pattern. Despite the high anisotropy of the welding nugget and surrounding area, a significant result is that σ₃₃ measured stress values are negligible in both the horizontal and vertical directions of the specimen. Consequently, microstructure–property relationships characterized here can indeed inform continuum material models for application in multiscale models.     

2205不锈钢摩擦焊接头组织及残余应力分布

采用X射线衍射技术对2205双相不锈钢焊接界面残余应力进行测试,同时利用光学显微镜及电子背散射衍射技术(EBSD)对接头旋合区（RZ）、热机影响区（TMAZ）及热影响区（HAZ）微观组织进行分析。结果表明：接头轴向、径向残余应力均表现为压应力状态,呈单边V形分布,其中轴向残余应力峰值(－287 MPa)位于热机影响区(TMAZ)边缘,该区域α相和γ相在焊接过程中,在剪切及摩擦作用下,发生剧烈扭曲;而焊缝中心旋合区具有明显的动态再结晶特征,呈细小等轴晶状(3~4 μm),残余应力仅为在－15~－54 MPa。     

拉剪载荷下超高强度钢点焊残余应力试验

点焊后焊接残余应力叠加工作载荷后,内部应力会重新分配.文中选用B1500HS超高强度钢薄板,制备焊接构件,并通过X射线衍射法测量焊核区、热影响区及母材区的表面残余应力.在施加拉剪载荷的情况下,分别从电极端面直径、焊接电流两方面考察点焊构件在施加拉剪载荷前后残余应力的分布情况.结果表明,点焊时电流变化对试件的残余应力有一定影响;电极端面直径增加使得焊核区的残余应力增大.施加拉剪载荷后,残余应力在焊核与热影响区有所释放,远离焊核区的释放较小.     

FSW接头残余应力分布及控制技术

对不同搅拌头、不同工艺参数条件下的搅拌摩擦焊焊接结构宏观变形进行了测量和分析,在优化参数条件下,研究了动态控制低应力无变形焊接技术搅拌摩擦焊焊接结构宏观变形及残余应力的影响。研究表明,减小搅拌头轴肩直径、降低焊接热输入有助于减小结构宏观变形;动态控制低应力无变形焊接技术有助于减小接头残余应力,但是对结构宏观变形的作用不是很明显。     

Finite element analysis on electron beam brazing temperature and stresses of stainless steel radiator

Based on thermal-elasto-plastic finite element theory, a two-dimensional finite element model for calculating electron beam brazing temperature and residual stress fields of stainless steel radiator are presented. The distributions of temperature and residual stress are studied. The resuhs showed that temperature distribution on brazing surface is rather uniform, ranging from 1 026 ℃ to 1 090 ℃. The residual stresses are varied from initial compressive to tensile , and the variation of residual stress is very little in total zone of brazing surface.     

Effect of trailing heat sink on residual stresses and welding distortion in friction stir welding Al sheets

Abstract

This paper investigates a trailing heat sink, which was designed and applied to friction stir welding (FSW) in order to control the residual stresses and welding distortion. Residual stresses, residual plastic strains and welding distortion of 2024-T3 and 5083-H321 Al sheets welded by FSW with and without the trailing heat sink were compared. The optimal placement of the heat sink was discussed. The results revealed that the reductions in peak tensile stresses were 66% for 2024-T3 and 58% for 5083-H321 by application of the trailing heat sink in FSW. In addition, the welding distortion could be reduced drastically by this method. The 5083-H321 sheet with a size of 1000×100×3·5 mm welded by this method was very flat and had almost no distortion. This method achieved in-process control of stresses and welding distortion, without additional complicated work before or after welding operation.