Beyond ultrapure hemodialysis: A necessary and achievable goal

Survival of chronic hemodialysis patients is worse than that of many patients with cancers or severe infections. An important cause of chronic inflammation is impurities infused into patients during dialysis. Definitions of dialysis purity have been narrow and focused on metals in dialysate water and on bacterial contaminants. There is no standard for priming fluids or toxins released directly into blood from inside the extracorporeal circuit. We propose a much broader standard of dialysis purity that also includes phthalate metabolites, bisphenols, spalled particles, and other contaminants from dialysis machines, filters, and bloodlines. Standards must include new methods for measuring bacteriological contaminants in addition to colony‐forming units and endotoxin determinations. These include the sensitive silkworm larva plasma test that detects peptidoglycan that is missed by endotoxin tests and standards for newly detected small molecular bacterial detritus. Current levels for “standard” bacteriological contaminants are woefully inadequate and should be increased. New standards for contamination with plasticizers and spallation are also necessary. Studies with ultrapure dialysis have shown almost immediate patient benefits with increased well‐being and stabilization of the cardiovascular system during and between dialyses. Intermediate effects include lower C‐reactive protein levels, better response to erythropoietin, increased appetite, and improved nutrition. Over the years, amyloidosis and carpal tunnel syndrome have become less common and cardiovascular deaths have decreased. Standards for dialysis purity must be sharpened and expanded and this becomes even more urgent with daily and long nightly hemodialysis. All contaminants received by patients, whether biological, chemical, or physical, must be considered.     

我国蒸气压缩式集中空调机组能效状况及相关标准分析

为降低集中空调机组不断增长的能耗及其所引发的环境问题,我国制订了单元式空调机和冷水机组能源效率标准.我国标准将空调产品的能效水平分为5个等级,等级5为能效限定值、等级1能效最高、等级2为节能评价值.与美国标准对比,发现我国标准在国际上处于较低水平.以中、美两国标准来衡量我国集中空调机组产品的能效水平,发现多数集中空调机组能达到我国标准的限定值要求,但离美国标准和我国标准的节能评价值要求仍然有较大差距.     

Riverbank filtration for sustainable water supply: application to a large-scale facility on the Nile River

Riverbank filtration (RBF) is an efficient and low-cost natural alternative technology for water supply application in which surface water contaminants are removed or degraded as the infiltrating water moves from the river/lake to the pumping wells. The removal or degradation of contaminants is a combination of physicochemical and biological processes. For more than 100 years, RBF has been used in Europe for public and industrial water supply along Rhine, Elbe, and Danube rivers. This paper presents an investigation of a full-scale RBF plant located in Upper Egypt as section of Nile valley to produce drinking water. The studied plant is constructed in 2004 to supply potable water for Sidfa city (30,000 residents), Assiut Governorate. It consists of 6 vertical wells, each about 60 m deep, with distance about 30 m from the west bank of Nile. Water samples from Nile as induced surface water, from background groundwater, and from production wellfield were collected and analyzed at three discrete events. Quality measurements of physical, chemical, and microbiological characteristics were obtained. Comparison of produced water with surface and background natural groundwater for the investigated plant has proven the effectiveness of RBF technique for potable water supply in Upper Egypt. Physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of the produced water are better than the allowable standards for drinking purposes. The results prove the implementation of RBF treatment method for water supply in Nile valley.     

Quality of hemodialysis water in a resource‐poor country: The Nigerian example

Hemodialysis (HD) patients are exposed to large volumes of water, separated from patients' blood by semipermeable membrane of dialyzers. Chemical contaminants in poorly treated water impact negatively on quality of life of these patients. This survey was carried out to assess the HD water quality in Lagos, Nigeria. Ten milliliters of feed and treated water from all six HD centers in Lagos were tested for aluminum, copper, zinc, magnesium, calcium using atomic absorption spectrometry; sodium and potassium were tested using flame photometry, fluoride with molecular photoluminescence method; sulfate using turbidimetry, nitrates measured by cadmium column reduction method, chloramines and free chlorine were measured using N, N‐diethyl‐1‐P‐phenylenediamine colorimetric method. Information on sources of feed water, frequency of testing of HD water, methods of water treatment, type of water purification system and maintenance was also obtained. All centers used borehole as main source of water supply. None of the centers met Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI) guidelines for most chemical contaminants. Only chlorine (0.48 ± 0.07 mg/L) and potassium (3.9 ± 0.95 mg/L) levels met AAMI standards after treatment. Mean levels of chemical contaminants in treated water were as follows: aluminum 0.04 ± 0.01 mg/L, zinc 0.27 ± 0.08 mg/L, chloramines 0.16 ± 0.03 mg/L, fluoride 1.83 ± 0.40 mg/L, sulfate 117 ± 86.1 mg/L which were mildly elevated; calcium 126.00 ± 22.7 mg/L, sodium 179 ± 25.6 mg/L, and nitrate 70.5 ± 50.8 mg/L, which were markedly elevated; and magnesium 8.3 ± 3.38 mg/L, which was moderately elevated above AAMI recommended levels. HD water quality is poor in our environment. Concerted efforts are required to ensure good quality water for HD.     

Rapid, State-of-the-Art Techniques for the Detection of Toxic Chemical Adulterants in Water Systems

Recent events have heightened awareness concerning potential hazardous threats to U.S. populace. The causes of concern include a possible contamination of water systems through harmful chemical agents resulting in sickness or death among consumers. To forestall the consequences of high-risk chemical contaminants that can potentially pollute our water resources, swift intervening measures need to be taken as a first line of defense. This aspect of environmental protection involves the design, testing, and installation of detection devices that protect U.S. water supply systems from toxic chemicals. These sensing devices are based on physical, chemical, biological, and radiological methods of detection. Traditional analytical tools are rather cumbersome, time-consuming, and expensive to operate. On the other hand, contemporary trends in the fight against toxic chemical threats to domestic and industrial water facilities comprise of sensors designed to achieve rapid, highly sensitive, and cost-effective detection, and intervention. This paper samples the state-of-the-art in detection techniques for toxic chemical antagonists with emphasis on heavy metals and cyanide compounds that can be potentially deleterious to U.S. water systems. The goal is to identify rapid, realistic and reliable methods, as early warning systems, to mitigate the effects of toxicants in water systems.     

Ion exchange and adsorbent precoat filters for treating toxic wastes

Removal of toxic and noxious compounds from ground- and wastewater streams has become a major concern in recent years. Industrial application of ion exchange and other adsorption technologies has limits due to concerns of capital investment, energy consumption, and pollution. A series of precoat formulations based on common adsorbents and ion exchange materials, which overcome these concerns while exhibiting excellent adsorptive or ion exchange capacities, have been developed. The removal of several metal and organic contaminants of major concern by the use of three of these products was tested. Two products, one containing a powdered cation exchanger, the other a powdered anion exchange resin, were used to remove the metal contaminants from a spiked water supply, depending on their organic state (canons or anionic complex species). The organcs were removed by the use of a product containing powdered activated carbon. The three products may be combined as a single precoat to remove both organic and inorganic contaminants in both soluble and colloidal states.     

欧洲立法与欧洲标准联接的桥梁——谈欧洲“新方法”下的“委托书”制度

欧盟委托书制度的产生是基于1985年欧盟理事会批准的《关于技术协调与标准新方法决议》。该决议明确规定,欧盟理事会和欧盟委员会负责制定涉及健康、安全等方面的"基本要求",而满足这些"基本要求"的技术标准任务则委托给欧洲标准化组织完成。欧盟委员会与欧洲标准化组织之间的关系依据的是"委托书"制度,可以说,"委托书"是欧洲立法与欧洲标准联接的桥梁和纽带。本文概述了委托书的基本概念、类型、内容等,阐述了委托书的桥梁和纽带作用。     

An assessment of optimal waste load allocation and assimilation characteristics in the Arroyo Colorado River watershed, TX along the US–Mexico border

Effective water quality management requires careful consideration of pollutant fate and transport, proper estimation of non-point source loadings, and maximum allowable allocation of point source discharges. A decision support system (DSS) that addresses all these issues is developed in this study by embedding mass-balance expressions, GIS, and a remote-sensing-based non-point source loading scheme into a hybrid goal-programming approach and is applied to the rapidly growing Arroyo Colorado River watershed along the US–Mexico border. The model components were favorably evaluated against field data and previous studies. The DSS was used to evaluate the carrying capacity of the river, defined based on the water quality standards for biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, and minimum in-stream flow requirements. The results indicated that on a macro-scale, the current stresses utilize about 40 % of the maximum carrying capacity. However, the most upstream and downstream sub-watersheds are currently over stressed and need to reduce their loadings. The assimilative capacity of the river is not sufficient to carry current flows at their permitted discharge concentrations implying an inequity among discharges with regard to treatment cost burden. Sensitivity analyses indicated that the carrying capacity was more affected by policy choices made for water quality standards then where they were to be enforced (i.e., compliance locations). Urban areas currently cover 13 % of the watershed but contribute nearly 45 % of the total non-point source loadings. Therefore, the urbanization in this watershed must be carefully planned with emphasis on stormwater treatment and management to sustain this valuable resource for future generations.     

空分设备产品气体纯度和允许漏率的计算

为了保证空分设备产品的纯度,必须考虑各个设备有可能对产品污染的具体情况,提出对各个设备允许漏率的具体要求及对精馏塔的分离纯度要求。详细介绍了漏率及最大允许漏率的计算以及转换到图纸标注设备允许氦质谱检漏的漏率计算方法,最后以空分设备的主冷为例,对氦质谱检漏要求的漏率最大值进行了演算。     

Quality of water in hemodialysis centers in Baghdad,Iraq

Dialysis water quality is one of the important parameters all over the world because of its direct influence on the health of kidney patients. In Iraq, there are more than 20 dialysis centers; most of them contain identical units for the production of dialysis water. In this work, the quality of water used for dialysis in six dialysis centers located within Baghdad hospitals was evaluated. Samples of product water from each of the six dialysis centers were examined for total heterotrophic bacteria, endotoxin, and chemical contaminants. Endotoxin was measured on‐site using a portable instrument. Bacteriological and chemical examinations were done in the laboratory after collecting samples from each dialysis center. The results showed a fluctuation in the produced water quality that makes the produced water unaccepted when compared with international standards. Bacterial counts for 60% of the analyzed samples were above the action level (50 colony‐forming units[CFU]/mL), while five out of the six dialysis centers showed values higher than the maximum value (100 CFU/mL). Chemical analysis showed that the dialysis water quality suffers from elevated aluminum concentration for all dialysis centers. All hemodialysis centers need thorough monitoring and preventive maintenance to ensure good water quality. In addition, it is important to revise the design of the water treatment units according to the feed and product water quality.     

Soil and groundwater cleanup: benefits and limits of emerging technologies

Contaminated soil and groundwater have been the subject of study and research, so that the field of remediation has grown and evolved, continually developing and adopting new technologies in attempts to improve the decontamination. The cleanup of environmental pollution involves a variety of techniques, ranging from simple biological processes to advanced engineering technologies. Cleanup activities may also address a wide range of contaminants. This article is a short analysis of the technologies for cleaning up groundwater and soil, highlighting knowledge and information gaps. Challenges and strategies for cleaning up different types of contaminants, mainly heavy metals and persistent organic compounds are described. Included are technologies that treat ground water contaminants in place in the subsurface and soil technologies that treat the soil either in place or on site in a treatment unit. Emerging technologies such as those based on oxidation–reduction, bioremediation, and nanotechnologies are covered. It is evident that for a good efficiency of remediation, techniques or even whole new technologies may be incorporated into an existing technology as a treatment train, improving its performance or overcome limitations. Several economic and decision-making elements are developed in the final part, based on the analysis carried out throughout the article. The work highlights the fact that excellence in research and technology progress could be attained by the development of technologies to deal more effectively and economically with certain toxic contaminants such as heavy metals, volatile organic compounds, and persistent organic pollutants, associated with optimization of technologies under field remediation conditions and requirements, improving capacity and yields, and reducing costs. Moreover, increasing knowledge of the scope and problem of equipment development could improve the benefits.     

Nanomaterial‐enabled Rapid Detection of Water Contaminants

Water contaminants, e.g., inorganic chemicals and microorganisms, are critical metrics for water quality monitoring and have significant impacts on human health and plants/organisms living in water. The scope and focus of this review is nanomaterial‐based optical, electronic, and electrochemical sensors for rapid detection of water contaminants, e.g., heavy metals, anions, and bacteria. These contaminants are commonly found in different water systems. The importance of water quality monitoring and control demands significant advancement in the detection of contaminants in water because current sensing technologies for water contaminants have limitations. The advantages of nanomaterial‐based sensing technologies are highlighted and recent progress on nanomaterial‐based sensors for rapid water contaminant detection is discussed. An outlook for future research into this rapidly growing field is also provided.     

Dose displays and record keeping

In digital diagnostic and interventional radiology, patient dosimetry is essential. When considering the display requirements for interventionalists it is necessary to consider the basis for their information needs. An interventionalist must be made aware of the potential for deterministic and non-deterministic effects. Thus a display is required which provides an indication of whether skin effects are likely and this predicates a display of maximum estimated skin entrance dose. For non-deterministic effects, a display of dose-area product is useful. Unfortunately, neither display is generally available to the interventionalist, so inevitably they will remain in the dark about the potential radiological consequences of the procedure. Given the need to follow up patients, who may receive a high dose, it is important that the patient notes contain relevant dosimetry data. One way of achieving this in the future would be to link electronically the patient dosimetry device to the patient record in the Radiological Information System. This dictates a need to develop patient dosimetry record minimum dataset and equipment connectivity standards.     

Perspectives of low cost arsenic remediation of drinking water in Pakistan and other countries

Arsenic concentrations above acceptable standards for drinking water have been detected in many countries and this should therefore is a global issue. The presence of arsenic in subsurface aquifers and drinking water systems is a potentially serious human health hazard. The current population growth in Pakistan and other developing countries will have direct bearing on the water sector for meeting the domestic, industrial and agricultural needs. Pakistan is about to exhaust its available water resources and is on the verge of becoming a water deficit country. Water pollution is a serious menace in Pakistan, as almost 70% of its surface waters as well as its groundwater reserves have contaminated by biological, organic and inorganic pollutants. In some areas of Pakistan, a number of shallow aquifers and tube wells are contaminated with arsenic at levels which are above the recommended USEPA arsenic level of 10 ppb (10 μg L⁻¹). Adverse health effects including human mortality from drinking water are well documented and can be attributed to arsenic contamination. The present paper reviews appropriate and low cost methods for the elimination of arsenic from drinking waters. It is recommended that a combination of low cost chemical treatment like ion exchange, filtration and adsorption along with bioremediation may be useful option for arsenic removal from drinking water.     

Magnetic mesoporous materials for removal of environmental wastes

We have synthesized two different magnetic mesoporous materials that can be easily separated from aqueous solutions by applying a magnetic field. Synthesized magnetic mesoporous materials, Mag-SBA-15 (magnetic ordered mesoporous silica) and Mag-OMC (magnetic ordered mesoporous carbon), have a high loading capacity of contaminants due to high surface area of the supports and high magnetic activity due to the embedded iron oxide particles. Application of surface-modified Mag-SBA-15 was investigated for the collection of mercury from water. The mercury adsorption using Mag-SBA-15 was rapid during the initial contact time and reached a steady-state condition, with an uptake of approximately 97% after 7 h. Application of Mag-OMC for collection of organics from water, using fluorescein as an easily trackable model analyte, was explored. The fluorescein was absorbed into Mag-OMC within minutes and the fluorescent intensity of solution was completely disappeared after an hour. In another application, Mag-SBA-15 was used as a host of tyrosinase, and employed as recyclable catalytic scaffolds for tyrosinase-catalyzed biodegradation of catechol. Crosslinked tyrosinase in Mag-SBA-15, prepared in a two step process of tyrosinase adsorption and crosslinking, was stable enough for catechol degradation with no serious loss of enzyme activity. Considering these results of cleaning up water from toxic inorganic and organic contaminants, magnetic mesoporous materials have a great potential to be employed for the removal of environmental contaminants and potentially for the application in large-scale wastewater treatment plants.     

Regulatory Aspects of Stability Testing in Europe

The stability data requirements for human pharmaceuticals in the European Community (EC) are based on a series of Directive and Regulation requirements and on a series of advisory guidelines that have been developed and adopted through the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) procedures or, where there is no relevant ICH project, through the Committee for Proprietary Medicinal Products (CPMP). There are relevant requirements that cover new drugs and finished products containing them and also for existing active ingredients and products containing them. The sources of the relevant information and the data requirements are discussed and summarized.     

Regulatory Aspects of Stability Testing in Europe

The stability data requirements for human pharmaceuticals in the European Community (EC) are based on a series of Directive and Regulation requirements and on a series of advisory guidelines that have been developed and adopted through the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) procedures or, where there is no relevant ICH project, through the Committee for Proprietary Medicinal Products (CPMP). There are relevant requirements that cover new drugs and finished products containing them and also for existing active ingredients and products containing them. The sources of the relevant information and the data requirements are discussed and summarized.     

Structural identification of highly polar nontarget contaminants in drinking water by ESI-FAIMS-Q-TOF-MS

Drinking water is a complex mixture that contains thousands of naturally occurring and anthropogenic contaminants. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) methods have gained a tremendous popularity in monitoring nonvolatile, highly polar, and thermally labile components in drinking water. It is well recognized, however, that there are difficulties or limitations of LC-MS methods associated with (1) significant resources (time and effort) involved in sample preparation (preconcentration, fractionation, separation), (2) low screening capacity for target contaminants, and (3) insufficient capabilities for structural identification (elucidation) of nontarget contaminants. Consequently, LC-MS methods are mainly used for the detection of target contaminants (compounds identified in drinking water before), seldom for the structural identification of abundant nontarget pollutants (unidentified pollutants in drinking water), and almost never for the structural identification of nontarget components at a trace level. The paper presents a new method of electrospray ionization high field asymmetric waveform ion mobility spectrometry mass spectrometry (ESI-FAIMS-MS), which can detect a large number of water pollutants in a quick and convenient fashion without preconcentration, fractionation, derivatization, or column separation. Most importantly, the method provides structural identification of nontarget contaminants including species present in drinking water at a sub-parts-per-billion concentration level. The identification of previously unknown contaminants was based on mass measurements of investigated ions and their fragments in mass and tandem mass spectrometry. Elemental compositions of these ions, determined by mass measurements, were used to link dissociation patterns of investigated species with their chemical structures. Characterization of nontarget contaminants of chlorine-treated drinking water by ESI-FAIMS-MS has revealed many previously unknown disinfection byproducts. The most intriguing compound, from a group of highly polar hydroxycarboxylic acids discovered in the study, was the most abundant component of drinking water, glycolic acid. Glycolic acid (toxic to kidneys and associated with a moderate maternal toxicity) has never been considered as a drinking water contaminant, despite the fact that it is present in drinking water at a higher concentration (high ppm) than concentrations of highly polar water pollutants that had attracted most attention in the past. The process of structural elucidation of discovered pollutants, including ultratrace contaminants representing a variety of carboxylic acids, will be presented in detail. The structural identification of highly polar contaminants in drinking water presented in the paper is rarely reported in the literature. The key experimental feature of the ESI-FAIMS-MS method is FAIMS separation, which significantly improves the identification capabilities of mass spectrometry.     

Degradation of chemical warfare agent simulants using gas-liquid pulsed streamer discharges

This study determines the effectiveness of pulsed streamer discharges (PSD), a type of advanced oxidation technology (AOT) to clean water contaminated with chemical agents. For the purpose of this study, experiments were conducted with G and H agent simulants to determine the degradation kinetics and to determine the effects of various electrical and chemical parameters in the degradation of these contaminants. The energy efficiency of contaminant degradation shows that pulsed streamer discharges can be an efficient technology in treating water contaminated with chemical agents. The maximum energy yields of degradation of H and G agent simulants by the pulsed corona discharges are 0.029 and 0.008 molecules/100 eV, respectively, in the series configuration with ferrous sulfate salt in solution.     

Synthesis,characterisation and potential applications of polyaniline/chitosan‐Ag‐nano‐biocomposite

Biodegradable polymers have greatly promoted the development of environmental, biomedical and allied sciences because of their biocompatibility and doping chemistry. The emergence of nanotechnology has envisaged greater options for the development of biodegradable materials. Polyaniline grafted chitosan (i.e. biodegradable PANI) copolymer was prepared by the chemical in situ polymerisation of aniline using ammonium per sulphate as initiator while Ag nanoparticle were synthesised by chemical reduction method and incorporated in to the polymer matrix. The as prepared materials were characterised by X‐ray diffraction, Fourier transform Infra‐red spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, energy dispersive X‐ray analysis. Moreover energy storage capacity, impedance properties were also studied. The main focus was on the photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes to remove the toxic and carcinogenic pollutants. This polymer nano‐biocomposite has multifold applications and can be used as excellent materials for enhanced photodegradation and removal of toxic contaminants from waste waters and natural water streams. In addition, the biocompatible materials with excellent mechanical properties and low toxicity can also be used for tissue engineering, drug delivery and electrical energy storage devices.Inspec keywords: silver, filled polymers, polymer blends, nanocomposites, nanoparticles, nanofabrication, biodegradable materials, polymerisation, reduction (chemical), Fourier transform infrared spectra, transmission electron microscopy, X‐ray chemical analysis, X‐ray diffractionOther keywords: polyaniline‐chitosan‐silver‐nanobiocomposite, biodegradable polymers, biocompatibility, doping chemistry, nanotechnology, biodegradable PANI, polyaniline grafted chitosan copolymer, biodegradable materials, chemical in situ polymerisation, nanoparticle, polymer matrix, chemical reduction method, Fourier transform Infrared spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, energy dispersive X‐ray analysis, X‐ray diffraction, energy storage capacity, impedance properties, carcinogenic pollutants, toxic pollutants, photodegradation, toxic contaminants, natural water streams, waste waters, drug delivery, tissue engineering, electrical energy storage devices, mechanical properties, Ag