Energy sources for rural development

More energy is needed in the rural areas of developing countries for agriculture, transportation, domestic uses, and industrial development in towns and small cities of the countryside. By the year 2025, rural energy needs in South America, Africa, and Asia, outside the Soviet Union and Japan, could be over 4 TW—half of the present world energy consumption. With known technology most, but not all, of this energy might be supplied by the traditional source of rural energy—the biomass of forest woods and agricultural residues. To obtain a high sustainable yield of biomass, use of some “commercial” energy from fossil fuels or hydroelectric power will usually be necessary. The most serious energy problems will exist in rural Asia, with its high man-land ratios; these are illustrated by the examples of Nepal and Bangladesh. Large capital investments and intensive research and development must be undertaken to ensure adequate future energy supplies for the Asian countries.     

Transport and energy in developing countries

The author examines the transport energy consumption of developing countries and compares it with that of developed countries. These figures are found to suggest considerable scope for transport energy savings. Given the need for improved energy efficiency, the author moves on to consider transport in the context of the wider economy. Four broad policy approaches which can affect transport energy consumption are identified — information and training programmes, subsidies; pricing and tax policies; and administrative regulations. The author's primary conclusion is that the energy price changes of the last decade do not hold revolutionary implications for the transport sector. There remains, however, a need to improve efficiency in this sector.     

Biomass energy in developing countries

Energy from biomass already forms an important part of the world economy, especially in the form of traditional fuels. The author explains how the resource base is very large even under present technologies and may be larger under better techniques of cultivation or through genetic engineering. Gasification of wood and the production of charcoal are two of the most promising bioenergy technologies, with the production of alcohol from sugarcane a stronger contender under present world sugar market conditions. There are particular constraints for all renewable fuels, including bioenergy — such as uncertainty in oil prices — plus the special problems of competition with agriculture and confusion of planning authority. This paper examines the present role of biomass energy, the resource base for future development, some promising energy conversion technologies and uses and a few constraints on the development of bioenergy.     

Modeling energy and agriculture interactions—I: A rural energy systems model

Since many of the factors related to rural energy systems are gradually being quantified, there is a need to construct a model that integrates a number of these factors simultaneously in a consistent framework. Therefore, a general linear programming model is developed to capture energy and agricultural interactions existing in the rural areas of developing countries. Energy used for agriculture includes fertilizers, irrigation, and mechanization. Several technological choices of each of the above are considered and so are several crop commodities, several types of livestock, and farmers of different income groups along with their assets, i.e. land holdings, livestock, etc. The by-products of agriculture, i.e. biomass, such as crop residues, animal dung, wood, etc., can be used to generate energy. On the demand side the use of them for feed, fuel, and fertilizer must be considered. Thus, the household sector (which is the largest user of noncommercial energy), as well as the rural industries sector, is intimately related to the agriculture sector. Twelve different energy sources and several conversion technologies, such as biogas, charcoal kilns, alcohol distilleries, etc., are considered. The model is applicable to low-income, biomass-scarce developing countries. However, different types of countries will require different approximations, and their needs for detailing some aspects or other may vary. The model is suitable for policy purposes because it considers several income groups separately and considers how different changes affect each of them.     

Should we educate the public about exergy?

The author explains his views that the public is often confused when it discusses energy, and needs to be better educated about exergy if energy issues and problems are to be addressed appropriately.     

Energy and water tradeoffs in enhancing food security: A selective international assessment

Rice is the major staple food in most Asian countries. However, with rapidly growing populations, sustained high productivity and yields through improving water productivity is critically important. Increasingly complex energy–agriculture relationships require an in-depth understanding of water and energy tradeoffs. This study contributes to energy and food policies by analysing the complex energy, water and economics dynamics across a selection of major rice growing countries.The results show that tradeoffs exist between yield and energy inputs with high yield attributed to higher levels of energy input. The selected developed countries show higher energy productivity, relative to all other energy inputs, compared to the selected developing counties, owing to enhanced mechanisation, on-farm technology and improved farm management. Among all countries, China has the highest water productivity due to water-saving irrigation practices. These practices offer opportunities for developed and developing countries to increase water productivity at the same time taking advantage of economic and energy benefits of reduced pumping.Sustained production from agriculture is vital to food security. Improved irrigation practices can offset environmental footprints in the short run but their large-scale implementation remains an issue. In the long run, investments are needed to buffer the negative impacts of food production on the environment. Investments to boost water productivity and improved energy use efficiency in crop production are two pathways to reduce energy dependency, enhanced natural resource sustainability and ensuring future food security.     

The need for an alternative energy strategy in the agricultural economies of the Third World

The relationship between energy availability and food productivity is examined for 31 developing countries which obtain at least 30% of their Gross Domestic Products (GDP) from agriculture. In those countries where energy is particularly scarce, such as many of the African states, food production is now falling behind population growth rates. Since these countries now have to spend more of their own export earnings on imported energy, mainly oil, than hitherto, their main opportunity for acquiring needed energy supplies for agriculture is in the form of locally produced energy, chiefly as biofuels within decentralised integrated energy systems at the village community level. Such an alternative energy strategy is shown to be feasible and necessary to prevent the already low nutritional standards of the world's poorest countries from deteriorating even further.     

World energy markets and the developing countries

Primary energy consumption in the developing countries has been increasing rapidly in the last ten years, giving rise to the prospect that these countries will play an even greater role in world energy markets. This paper describes the adjustments to higher petroleum prices that have taken place in the developing countries and looks at their likely future role. For the purpose of exposition, the developing countries are divided into oil-exporting and oil-importing groups. Analysis is conducted mostly at the aggregate level but fuel-specific and sectoral trends are also identified. The author notes that the experience of the last ten years suggests that the dramatic increases in international petroleum prices had a relatively minor impact on the developing countries′ total energy consumption. There was, however, a significant degree of substitution for other fuels for petroleum in the oil-importing developing countries. The prognostications for the future presented in this paper are based on the assumption that adjustments to price changes take more time in the developing countries. A reasonable degree of adjustment can be expected for the years ahead.     

The price of crude oil in the international energy market: A political analysis

Political processes, claims the author, offer the chief explanation of price trends in the international oil market. Although these processes take place within an economic framwork, the band between the costs of production and those of alternative sources of energy within which prices could move, is so large that is has lost much of its practical effect in determining prices. A number of actors are identified whose interaction principally determines prices. The historical development of this interaction is traced and the author concludes that it may ultimately be in the interests of all actors — producers, consumers, companies and developing nations — to coordinate their efforts in synchronising the introduction of new energy sources to replace oil.     

Energy planning in developing countries

The sharp increases in international oil prices during the past decade have had a major impact on growth prospects and balance of payments in developing countries. This has led to an increasing awareness that energy is a crucial factor in the development process. This paper describes the planning context in developing countries and summarizes their needs. Within an overall analytical framework for analysis and planning, a number of specific approaches and examples are given in the areas of energy demand and supply planning. One of the major conclusions is that the energy planning process can be effective only as an integral part of development planning.     

Promoting sustainable energy technology transfers to developing countries through the CDM

The clean development mechanism (CDM) has the objective to support developing countries in achieving a sustainable development path, while at the same time assisting industrialized countries in achieving their Kyoto Protocol commitments. Actual practice shows that CDM technology transfers are largely focused on reducing GHG emissions at lowest cost and less on the domestic development needs and priorities of the host countries. This paper discusses an approach to facilitate low-carbon energy technology transfer compatible with the energy development needs and priorities of developing countries. The results reported here are concerned with the relation between the transfer of low-carbon energy technologies and the perceived needs and priorities for low-carbon technologies in the country context. The study has provided insights on improving the CDM for technology transfer in accordance with host countries’ development priorities and has been applied to Chile, China, Israel, Kenya and Thailand. It forms the first stage of an overall approach for facilitating low-carbon technology transfer under the UNFCCC. The second stage of the study is reported elsewhere [ENTTRANS, 2008. Promoting sustainable energy technology transfers through the CDM: Converting from a theoretical concept to practical action. Final report of specific support action under EU FP-6, January 2006–December 2007. Contract 022673, co-ordination: Foundation JIN, Groningen, The Netherlands, www.enttrans.org].     

Global food supply and the impacts of increased use of biofuels

In recent years prices on global food markets showed large fluctuations. The use of biomass as energy source (biofuel) in the developed world is frequently mentioned as one of the reasons for this instability. This paper compares the need for biofuel and needs for food and feed on global scale. A simple model is developed to estimate present and near future global needs for food, livestock feed and energy. We distinguish between developing countries, transition countries and the developed countries. The first group of countries needs extra food for their growing population, the second one needs extra feed, since the increased incomes among their population lead to increased demands for animal products. The developed countries require biomass to reduce the CO₂ emissions of their energy use. On global scale the extra needs for biomass as a fuel (1100 MT) turn out to be larger than the extra needs for food and feed (800 MT each). At present the developed countries are food exporters, their produce is essential for several food insecure countries in Africa and Asia. The increased need for biomass for energy is likely to affect these exports and therefore affect food security in parts of the world.     

Energy conservation: The need for a sharper institutional focus

Improved efficiency of energy usage has a new role to play in economic growth in both developed and developing countries. Economic pricing of energy is central to effective energy conservation policies. But even when such policies are pursued, there are a number of barriers which inhibit the effective working of the market — in particular, the fragmentation of responsibility for decisions affecting energy use (both within individual governmetal systems and amongst the myriad of individual consumers involved), and lack of appreciation of the scope for increased efficiency and of what can be achieved technically. Governmental intervention is necessary to overcome market imperfections. The form will vary according to political philosophy and social and institutional patterns. Experience in the industrialized countries, with a varied institutional response, can provide valuable guidelines for developing countries, whose importance in commercial energy markets is increasing sharply and could prove a crucial factor in times of market disruption.     

Can exergy help us understand and address environmental concerns?

The author explains his views that, to better understand and address environmental concerns, we need to focus on the linkages between exergy and the environment, and that much more research is needed in this area if the benefits—which are potentially immense—are to be fully tapped.     

Global options for short-range alternative energy strategies

A discussion is presented on the possibilities of supplying the energy needs of the world and particularly of the developing countries on the basis of renewable resources: hydro power and biomass. Hydro power is found to be underused in many parts of the developing countries and, up to the end of the century at least, 25 quads per year could be produced from this source. In addition, the unused annual increment of present-day forests could supply at least another 100 quads/year in developing countries. In industrialized countries only conservation can have a significant impact as an alternative strategy.     

Biogas as a sustainable energy source in Nepal: Present status and future challenges

Cattle manure, human excreta and agriculture residues are used in anaerobic bioreactors in many parts of the world to produce methane gas, which is used for the purpose of cooking and lighting. Since such waste materials are readily available in farms, rural people of many developing countries have been benefited from this technology. Besides, this technology is cheaper and simpler, thus, gaining popularity throughout the world. Nepal is one of the least developed countries with the vast majority of people involved in subsistence agriculture. The use of biogas technology in Nepal has benefited the country in improving health, environment, economy and energy conservation. In this paper, we present the state of the biogas sector in Nepal.     

Factors influencing greenhouse heating and geothermal heating systems

Low profits, stagnation and other negative consequences of the energy crisis of the early '70s gave renewed impetus to research and development programs in the European countries in an attempt at reducing the energy demand of the rural sectors and discovering new sources of energy. The results of these efforts can be summarized as follows: (1) The specific energy demand in agriculture has been reduced in a number of European countries. New, so-called “energy-saving” technologies have been developed and introduced in plant cultivation and animal husbandry. (2) Renewable resources have been re-discovered and are under exploration or commercial utilization: solar and wind, biomass, industrial waste, geothermal. But the significance of these resources in energy terms is not determined only by the amount consumed and the amount of other resources saved, but also by their role within the economy of the country and the effects on the trade balance. The alternative energies were therefore very much a question of policy, of assessing the influence on more productive sectors and on energy consumption on the whole. These were the factors that determined the different approaches taken in the European nations, and the different results achieved, rather than the availability of the resources. Geothermal energy could make a contribution to the energy requirements of most European countries, for the following reasons: (1) high enthalpy resources can be found in some countries (e.g. Turkey); (2) large quantities of low enthalpy resources at temperatures of 30–80°C can be found in aquifers in most European countries; (3) the rational utilization of low grade heat in district heating, agriculture and process heating could lead to considerable savings of imported fuels, since these sectors account for 40–60% of the total heat demand in Europe; (4) great progress has been made in the last few years in know-how and technology for utilizing different temperature ranges of geothermal fluids in agriculture, animal husbandry, food processing and other applications. It is difficult to assess the future of geothermal energy in agriculture in Europe, in the current world energy market. The factors influencing our assessment vary from country to country, depending on the development stage, short- and long-term policy for resource development and utilization, economic climate, investments available, etc. It is therefore equally difficult to compare the validity of the investment of the various countries in geothermal development and utilization. Much depends on the quality and quantity of the technical, technological and economical information required to reach an accurate estimate. For this reason the first target of the collaboration of scientists from different European countries is to collect all the information available in Europe, then select and reorganize this data in such a way that it can be used by different countries with different local circumstances for different types of assessment. At the present level of technology, there are many possible applications of geothermal energy. The limits change continually with advances in technology. In greenhouse heating, for example, nearly all the temperature ranges required for hot beds and hot water irrigation are actually available, which explains why the most widely developed application of geothermal resources is in agriculture, food processing and greenhouse heating. Many projects in European countries are successful, showing profits. However, the main drawback is the relatively high investment costs compared to conventional heating systems. Some technical problems have also to be solved in order to achieve the specific light, ventilation and other conditions required in greenhouse systems. An important factor in low-temperature installations is location of the installation, which affects climatization and heat transfer. This paper will discuss the different aspects of this problem.     

高油价下的亚太国家能源政策

国际市场油价不断攀升,对亚太发展中国家经济增长带来巨大影响和挑战。许多国家都采取各种措施,积极应对,调整和制定能源政策,通过改善提高能源利用效率,鼓励开发利用可再生能源,积极开展区域合作,优化资源配置,降低对石油资源的依赖,保障能源安全。本文分析了当前油价对经济发展的影响,介绍了部分亚太国家应对油价上涨的能源政策,指出保障能源安全,实现可持续发展是亚太国家能源政策的唯一选择。     

Renewable energy conversion and utilization in ASEAN countries

The world population has passed six billion people and the pressure on basic daily needs is particularly dominant in the developing countries, such as the ASEAN. As most of the natural resources, particularly that of fossil fuel is depleting rapidly, more efficient ways to produce daily necessity are becoming important issues. In addition, both the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol require, that efforts should be directed to improve efficiency of energy conversion devices, effective use of the clean and environmentally friendly renewable source of energy, beside providing sink for the green house gas (GHG) emissions. INFORSE report to the UN Secretary General indicated that the total energy sources in the industrialized countries will diminish drastically, but by providing enough funding for R/D in renewable energy conversion, about 50% of the world energy could be supplied by the developing countries by the year 2050.Despite the above limiting conditions, current data indicated growing energy demand in most of the developing countries, particularly in the ASEAN region. Consequently, these countries, should find out the best strategy in utilizing the available energy sources to maintain sustainable development. One of the reasonable option is to make use of the potential renewable energy resources within the countries and develop industries that complies with the unique characteristics of the energy, which is usually disperse, low density and mostly is still not yet competitive with power generation system using subsidized fuel price. Although some basic R/D on renewable energy technology is also being conducted in ASEAN, more effort, however, is directed to its immediate applications in providing basic energy need for rural house-hold, creating productive uses to process agricultural commodities, and to support general rural electrification programs. Such activity has been supported by relevant and operational government policies, international assistances, and gradual involvement of the private sectors.     

金融危机期间世界主要国家能源构成变化及启示

金融危机导致的全球性经济衰退,使世界各国的能源消费量增速、特别是能源构成发生了相应变化。多数国家煤炭消费占比有所上升,其中尤以能源消费量大且最强调绿色环保的德、法、英、西、意等欧盟五国表现最为典型,中国、印度等许多发展中国家也有程度不同的表现,这是与改善能源构成的大方向相反的逆行性变化。但美国因页岩气革命导致非常规油气大发展而表现与众不同。期间各国新能源多有较快发展,不过皆表现出后期增速减缓的趋势。这些变化给我们以启示:市场竞争力是影响能源构成变化、能源替代和新能源发展的决定性因素。促进新能源发展的补贴政策应以帮助其提高科技水平、获得市场竞争力为目的,为此各种扶持政策应向产业链上游、特别是科研项目和工业化试生产倾斜。新能源补贴标准不应过高、时间不应过长。能源新时代的到来是以经济和科技的大发展为前提的,需要经历艰苦并可能是曲折的一段发展历程。能源发展模式和能源构成要因地制宜,实现多元化发展。