BEYOND ETHNIC ENCLAVES? EXPLORING THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF LATINO‐OWNED EMPLOYER FIRMS IN TWO U.S. IMMIGRATION GATEWAYS

The Latino population in the United States has increased dramatically during the past several decades. However, Latino‐owned businesses have been understudied. Even less is known about these firms’ spatial distribution. Built on an interdisciplinary literature on industrial locations and ethnic economies, this study examines how the development of ethnic minority–owned businesses is contingent on the local neighborhood as both a work site and habitat. Using a confidential national survey of ethnic minority–owned businesses in the United States, this study compares the spatial distribution of Latino‐owned employer firms in the Miami and Atlanta metropolitan areas. Consistent with previous research, results from this study strongly reinforce the importance of a connection between ethnic population concentration and emergence of ethnic businesses. A concentration of local businesses and co‐locating with other businesses, regardless of ethnicity, are very important as well. Such agglomeration effects seem particularly important for new immigration destinations like Atlanta where a favorable entrepreneurial environment is still being developed for ethnic minority businesses. However, the positive effects from co‐locating with local businesses are not linear. A threshold effect and small count preferences are detected in the two study areas.     

RACIAL AND ETHNIC TRENDS IN THE SUBURBANIZATION OF POVERTY IN U.S. METROPOLITAN AREAS, 1980–2010

This research examines recent trends in the suburbanization of poor non‐Latino Whites, Blacks, and Asians, and Latinos of all races in the United States. The authors find strong associations between a temporally lagged measure of suburban housing supply and poverty suburbanization during the period 2006–2010 for all groups, but these associations are largely attenuated by similarly lagged controls for suburban affordable housing and employment, as well as for other characteristics of metropolitan areas. Findings indicate that poor non‐Latino Whites and Asians have higher suburbanization rates in metropolitan areas with higher levels of suburban employment, while the suburbanization of the Black and Latino poor is more strongly related to the availability of affordable suburban housing. Increases in housing supply are associated with change in poverty suburbanization over time for Whites, Blacks, and Latinos. In addition, increases in affordable rental housing are associated with increases in the suburbanization of the Latino poor.     

IMMIGRATION AND THE NEW METROPOLITAN GEOGRAPHY

ABSTRACT: In this article, we argue for understanding immigrant suburbanization as one outcome of the mass migrations associated with economic globalization, a process that has coincided with and shaped the decentralization and reconfiguration of the American metropolis. We contend, as well, that economic differentiation among the foreign‐born translates into distinctive residential patterns that reflect the diversity of new metropolitan geographies. Using individual and tract‐level data from metropolitan Philadelphia since 1970, we describe the intersection of spatial differentiation (suburban variety) with both demographic diversity (ethnic and racial differentiation) and linked patterns of ethnic and racial population growth and decline. We highlight the importance of immigration to population and economic growth, the diversity among immigrants, the inability of “suburb” to capture the region's residential ecology, and the surprising links between the growth of immigrant and African‐American populations in the same places. We clearly show how the residential experience of African Americans differs from that of both immigrants and native‐born whites.     

Spatial mismatch research in the 1990s: progress and potential

This article reviews recent research about the spatial mismatch hypothesis from a range of social science disciplines. Since 1990, researchers have tested the mismatch hypothesis in diverse metropolitan settings; devised more accurate measures of geographical access to employment; and developed models to address issues such as compensating variations, sample selection bias, and contextual effects. We argue for a broader conceptualization of spatial mismatch that considers how social and spatial relations affect employment outcomes for women, immigrants, and other ethnic minorities. This broader view will enhance the contribution of research to current theoretical and policy debates about urban poverty. The effects of metropolitan context and neighborhood-level differences in services, resources, and social networks on spatial access and, independently, on wages and employment also warrant future research attention. Received: April 14, 1998 / Accepted: April 3, 1999     

The Changing Occupational Structure of Large Metropolitan Areas: Implications for the High School Educated

Abstract: This article examines employment trends in broad occupational categories during the 1986 to 1999 period for a group of 50 large United States metropolitan areas. After describing the secular trends, I estimate a cross‐sectional model to quantify the effects of local industry mix and labor‐saving technology on the occupational employment distribution in these urban areas. Despite quite heterogeneous occupational employment distributions among the 50 MSAs, I find a strikingly uniform decline in the share of mid‐skilled administrative support and precision production, craft and repair occupations appropriate for high school graduates and growth in the share of high‐skilled managerial and professional occupations, suggesting skill and wage polarization. The regression analysis indicates that the share of mid‐skilled employment in large metropolitan areas is positively associated with the output shares of the durable manufacturing and finance, insurance and real estate (FIRE) industries and negatively associated with the introduction of labor‐saving technologies in these industries. I conclude by reviewing local policy initiatives that may improve labor market outcomes for high school graduates.     

Metropolitan Latino Political Behavior: Voter Turnout and Candidate Preference in Los Angeles

Abstract: Most research on Latino voting behavior conclusively finds that as a group, Latinos vote at lower rates than other racial and ethnic groups in the United States. In this article, we argue that given the appropriate circumstances, Latinos should be expected to vote at higher rates than other racial and ethnic groups. In particular, we think the presence of a viable Latino candidate will spur increased Latino turnout and that when Latinos candidates run for office, Latino voters will prefer the co‐ethnic candidate. Analyzing precinct level returns from the Los Angeles 2001 mayoral and the 2000 presidential elections we show this may be the case. High‐density Latino precincts show higher rates of turnout when Latino candidates are on the ballot, and these same precincts show heightened support for the co‐ethnic candidate. In fact, for the first time ever in Los Angeles, the 2001 mayoral election witnessed Latinos voting at the highest rates of any racial or ethnic group in the city.     

Immigrant-native earnings differentials: SUR estimation applied on three generations

This paper presents a Seemingly Unrelated Regressions estimation of earnings differentials between three generations of immigrants and natives in Sweden. The results show that male first-generation immigrants were at an earnings advantage compared to male natives. Among male second-generation immigrants the earnings differentials compared to natives were very small, while third-generation immigrants were at an earnings disadvantage compared to natives. The same pattern was found among females. Thus, the results indicate that ethnic differences in earnings are likely to occur even after several generations spent in a country and that the problem of immigrant assimilation that exists in many European countries may last for several generations.     

Housing market segmentation in Swedish local authorities. Immigrants and Swedes; Young and old

The intention of this article is, firstly, to investigate housing market segmentation with respect to various age groups and to immigrants within Swedish local authorities. Secondly, it aims at trying to describe the differences between local authority areas with varying degrees of segmentation. It is important to differentiate between HOUSING SEGREGATION, which refers to separated dwellings between households in geographical space, and HOUSING MARKET SEGMENTATION which concerns legal and financial relationships to housing. In many cases housing segregation has decreased through the construction of housing estates where privately‐owned, co‐operative and rented flats are integrated, although the housing market segmentation has increased. A good deal of the housing market segmentation in a local authority refers to the stock of flats, the types of housing, the forms of occupancy, the categories of ownership on the housing market. Secondly the differences between local authorities often refers to the structure of economic life and geographical location in the country. In the first case in this explorative study, housing market segmentation between immigrants and Swedes, four variables account for 52 percent of the variation between local authority areas. Together these variables give an indication that ethnic housing market segmentation is high in industrialized areas with a slow development during the last decade. These areas are often situated quite near metropolitan or big regional centres. The ethnic housing market segmentation seems to have a very close connection with the socio‐economic segmentation, as it is high in ethnic segmented areas. In the second case, the housing market segmentation between age‐groups, two housing market characteristics account for 77 percent of the variations between local authority areas. A large proportion of dwellings constructed before 1950 and a homogeneity in the housing market seems to reduce the segmentation between age‐groups. This segmentation is much less than the ethnic one.     

Verifying the Multi‐Dimensional Nature of Metropolitan Land Use: Advancing the Understanding and Measurement of Sprawl

Abstract: Twelve conceptually distinct dimensions of land use patterns are operationalized for 50 large US metropolitan areas using a battery of indices. Common patterns of variation in these indices across metropolitan areas are discerned using correlation and factor analyses. We find that: (1) seven principal components best summarize the dimensions of housing and employment land uses, (2) metro areas often exhibit both high and low levels of sprawl‐like patterns across the seven components, and (3) housing and employment aspects of sprawl‐like patterns differ in nature. Thus, land use patterns prove multi‐dimensional in both theory and practice. Exploratory analyses indicate: (1) little regional variation in land use patterns, (2) metro areas with larger populations are more dense/continuous with greater housing centrality and concentration of employment in the core, (3) older areas have higher degrees of housing concentration and employment in the core, (4) constrained areas evince greater density/continuity, and (5) inter‐metropolitan variations in several dimensions of land use patterns are not well explained by population, age, growth patterns, or topographical constraints on development. Results imply that policymakers must carefully unravel which land use dimension is causing undesirable outcomes, and then devise precise policy instruments to change only this dimension.     

Geographic variations in precarious employment outcomes between immigrant and Canadian-born populations

We explore the spatial patterning of precarious forms of employment (PFE) by immigration status using Statistics Canada's 2011–2016 Labour Force Surveys. We provide new evidence showing that different PFEs exhibited distinct spatial patterns, with the census metropolitan areas showing the greatest spatial variation for immigrants. More so, immigrants were represented in high shares in PFEs in geographies where they tend to concentrate. Our findings raise a series of important questions on the efficacy of the regionally differentiated entitlement to Employment Insurance (EI) especially as immigrants are represented in high PFE shares in regions where EI coverage rates are low.     

US state and local fiscal policies and non‐metropolitan area economic performance: A spatial equilibrium analysis*

Faced with declining economic bases, many non‐metropolitan areas find themselves balancing the need to be cost‐competitive in terms of lower taxes against the need for provision of valued government services. Using a spatial equilibrium framework, this study econometrically examines the nexus between US state and local fiscal policies and non‐metropolitan county growth in earnings and housing rents during the 1990s. The results suggest that state and local fiscal characteristics significantly influenced firm and household location. Some characteristics could be clearly identified as having dominant firm profit effects, while numerous others were identified as having household amenity effects.     

ARE CENTRAL CITIES MORE CREATIVE? THE INTRAMETROPOLITAN GEOGRAPHY OF CREATIVE INDUSTRIES

ABSTRACT: This paper examines the location and growth of creative industries within metropolitan areas. In recent years, the creative industries have been increasingly sought after as potential engines of metropolitan economic growth. Although some research has been done on the location decisions by such firms and workers, it has primarily focused on interregional and intermetropolitan disparities. We use establishment‐level data to investigate intrametropolitan (central city versus suburban) location and growth for creative industry establishments in 40 of the top 101 metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs). We compared the number of employees and total annual payroll in each location, and categorize them by region, population size, and creative employment growth. Findings suggest that although creative industries are more centralized, they are decentralizing faster than other industries in general, but this rate, and even the direction, varies widely across MSAs.     

Urban spatial structure,agglomeration economies,and economic growth in Barcelona: An intra‐metropolitan perspective*

This paper presents an intra‐metropolitan approach to analyse the impact of urban spatial structure on local economic growth. Focusing on the Barcelona metropolitan region (BMR) between 1986 and 2001, we estimate a municipal employment growth model in which dynamic agglomeration economies related to urban spatial structure are considered using distance to employment centres, to assess metropolitan effects, and distance‐weighted variables, to measure neighbourhood effects. The results obtained show the existence of neighbourhood specialization economies and metropolitan urbanization‐localization economies fostering local growth. All of this leads to the paper's main conclusion: urban spatial structure is important for economic growth in an intra‐metropolitan context.     

POVERTY CONCENTRATION IN THE PRISMATIC METROPOLIS: THE IMPACT OF COMPOSITIONAL and REDISTRIBUTIVE FORCES WITHIN LOS ANGELES,CALIFORNIA, 1990–2000

Abstract: The degrees to which poor populations are spatially concentrated within metropolitan areas are influenced by two sets of forces. In this article, I refer to the first set of forces as redistributive forces, which includes intrametropolitan forces that redistribute populations among different neighborhoods. The second set of forces includes metropolitan‐wide processes that alter the relative poverty composition of the overall metropolitan population. These latter processes are referred to here as compositional forces. This research investigates the degrees to which these two sets of forces impacted poverty concentration among racial and ethnic groups within Los Angeles County, CA from 1990 to 2000. Both forces generally functioned to increase poverty concentration among all groups considered, with compositional forces having the stronger effect. Evidence suggests that the residential experiences of poor whites, African Americans, and Hispanics were strongly influenced by the migratory behavior of the nonpoor in Los Angeles. The Asian population, however, exhibited some evidence of ethnic (or racial) “self‐selectivity,” as this population exhibited less interclass segregation over time. Despite increased poverty concentration, findings demonstrate that Los Angeles became slightly less segregated by race and ethnicity during the 1990s.     

Black‐White Income Inequality and Metropolitan Socioeconomic Structure

Abstract We draw on leading theories about the structural causes of racial inequality in the US to investigate inter‐metropolitan differences in white and black per capita income. The analysis, which is based on a sample of 112 metropolitan areas and uses 1990 census data, examines the influence of spatial, economic, and demographic factors on black‐white income inequality. Our results show severe income inequality between blacks and whites in most metropolitan areas, with black per capita income being 55% of white per capita income, on average. We find that racial educational inequality and unemployment differences were the strongest predictors of racially based income inequality. We also find that metropolitan areas that are highly ranked on a business and financial dominance hierarchy have the most interracial income inequality. However, when a metropolitan area has a high level of manufacturing employment vis‐a‐vis low service employment it has less income inequality. We discuss the implications of these and other findings for theories about, and public policy regarding, urban inequality.     

LATINO NEIGHBORHOODS AND LATINO NEIGHBORHOOD POVERTY

ABSTRACT: n this article, I use 1980 and 1990 US census tracts that were 50% or more Latino to present a socioeconomic portrait of Latino neighborhoods and to investigate the determinants of poverty and the factors behind the poverty increase of Latinos in these neighborhoods. Results show that Latinos in Latino tracts rank worse than US Latinos on virtually all socioeconomic measures. Recent immigrants raise Latino neighborhood poverty, while long-term immigrants reduce it. The 1979 to 1989 increase in poverty in Latino neighborhoods can be explained better by changes in the payoffs of the characteristics that affect poverty than by changes in the value of these characteristics. Changes in the industrial composition of employment had a relatively large poverty-increasing effect.     

WHY HAVE EARNINGS PER WORKER STAGNATED?

ABSTRACT: The US is haunted by the virtual stagnation in the real average earnings per worker. The most common explanation is the combination of slow productivity growth and the smaller returns to productivity going to nonwage items such as health benefits, additional investment in productivity enhancing equipment, and to the increasing number of retirees. This explanation is insufficient to explain why, in many parts of the country, real average earnings have actually been decreasing, not just stagnating. This paper explores additional reasons why the US is experiencing stagnant national and often declining local earnings per worker. It uses a new data set, the ES202 data and focuses on one metropolitan area, Miwaukee, Wisconsin. It was found that the downward pressure on earnings per worker is due to such factors as the loss of high paying manufacturing jobs and the growth of employment in lower paying industries, new firms, growing firms that have decreasing earnings per worker, small businesses, and suburban businesses, which tend to pay less.     

RIGHT TO THE SUBURB? RETHINKING LEFEBVRE AND IMMIGRANT ACTIVISM

ABSTRACT: In the face of increasing migration by Latinos to suburbs and multi‐scalar policies criminalizing immigrants, municipalities are increasingly confronting the question, Who has the Right to the Suburb? We seek to better understand how the tensions between suburbanites and Latino immigrants are addressed by municipal governments as immigration enforcement is increasingly rescaled to the local level. Case studies of Maywood and Costa Mesa in Southern California suggest responses are by no means similar and can actually be contrasting, given the city's historical trajectories, socio‐economic status, political leadership, and networks of activists. Suburban struggles are often assumed to be conservative and as a result are undertheorized as sites of liberatory struggle. While the urban realm remains the most visible stage of social movements, this paper suggests immigrant activism is increasingly being generated in suburbs, election‐based organizing can be an effective gateway to municipal level change, and seeking to expand or constrict the Right to the City necessarily entails multi‐scalar efforts.     

MINORITIES ON THE MARGINS? THE SPATIAL ORGANIZATION OF FRINGE BANKING SERVICES

ABSTRACT: Case studies in select large cities have found that fringe services, including payday lenders, check cashers, pawn brokers, and money transmittal companies are more geographically accessible to predominantly minority neighborhoods while traditional banks are more accessible to white neighborhoods. However, many analyses are bivariate rather than multivariate and do not disentangle the influence of neighborhood socioeconomic status from that of race. Furthermore, the fringe services industry contends that market factors, such as zoning, arterials, population base, and commercial activity influence location. This study employs geographic information systems (GIS) and multiple regression to untangle the spatial relationship between minority communities and traditional and fringe banks in four small‐to‐moderate‐sized metropolitan areas. We find that, though market factors are indeed powerful determinants of fringe bank location, there are nonetheless persistent ethnic effects in two of the four cities and these effects cannot be attributed to factors correlated with a large minority presence.     

Mont Terri试验场Mine-by巷道开挖近场响应模拟分析

 瑞士Mont Terri地下实验室于2008年构建Mine-by(MB) Niche巷道,并围绕其中的MB Niche 2进行开挖诱发Opalinus Clay黏土岩围岩变形及流固耦合特征的现场实测分析。以MB Niche 2巷道为背景工程,利用基于双应变胡克模型(TPHM)的数值模拟方法,对MB Niche 2巷道的开挖过程进行模拟分析,计算结果较为准确地反映开挖卸载诱发的近场围岩变形行为、损伤区及孔隙水压力演化特征。模拟结果显示,巷道拱顶径向位移可达甚至超过10 mm,两帮破坏深度可达1.4 m,孔隙压力的扰动区最远可出现在掌子面前方11 m左右,最大孔隙压力可抬升至3.3 MPa,模拟结果与现场实测值表现出较好的一致性。基于双应变胡克模型TPHM的计算结果较基于传统胡克模型SPHM的计算结果更趋于符合实际,这在一定程度上反映出TPHM较好地捕捉到岩石中孔隙、裂隙等的自然应变(真应变)的物理本质,强调合适的本构模型在卸荷开挖工程问题模拟分析中的重要性。