Synthesis and characterization of high-density LiFePO4/C composites as cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries

To achieve a high-energy-density lithium electrode, high-density LiFePO₄/C composite cathode material for a lithium-ion battery was synthesized using self-produced high-density FePO₄ as a precursor, glucose as a C source, and Li₂CO₃ as a Li source, in a pipe furnace under an atmosphere of 5% H₂-95% N₂. The structure of the synthesized material was analyzed and characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscope (SEM). The electrochemical properties of the synthesized LiFePO₄/carbon composite were investigated by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and the charge/discharge process. The tap-density of the synthesized LiFePO₄/carbon composite powder with a carbon content of 7% reached 1.80 g m⁻³. The charge/discharge tests show that the cathode material has initial charge/discharge capacities of 190.5 and 167.0 mAh g⁻¹, respectively, with a volume capacity of 300.6 mAh cm⁻³, at a 0.1C rate. At a rate of 5C, the LiFePO₄/carbon composite shows a high discharge capacity of 98.3 mAh g⁻¹ and a volume capacity of 176.94 mAh cm⁻³.     

One-step microwave synthesis and characterization of carbon-modified nanocrystalline LiFePO4

The precursors of LiFePO₄ were prepared by a sol-gel method using lithium acetate dihydrate, ferrous sulfate, phosphoric acid, citric acid and polyethylene glycol as raw materials, and then the carbon-modified nanocrystalline LiFePO₄ (LiFePO₄/C) cathode material was synthesized by a one-step microwave method with the domestic microwave oven. The effect of microwave time and carbon content on the performance of the resulting LiFePO₄/C material was investigated. Structural characterization by X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy proved that the olivine phase LiFePO₄ was synthesized and the grain size of the samples was several hundred nanometers. Under the optimal conditions of microwave time and carbon content, the charge-discharge performance indicated that the nanosized LiFePO₄/C had a high electrochemical capacity at 0.2 C (152 mAh g⁻¹) and improved capacity retention; the exchange current density was 1.6977 mA cm⁻². Furthermore, the rate capability was improved effectively after LiFePO₄ was modified with carbon, with 59 mAh g⁻¹ being obtained at 20 C.     

Enhanced electrochemical properties of LiFePO4/C synthesized with two kinds of carbon sources,PEG-4000 (organic) and Super p (inorganic)

Olivine structured LiFePO₄/C cathode was synthesized via a freeze-drying route and followed by microwave heating with two kinds of carbon sources: PEG-4000 (organic) and Super p (inorganic). XRD patterns indicate that the as-prepared sample has an olivine structure and carbon modification does not affect the structure of the sample. Image of SEM shows a uniform and optimized particles size, which greatly improves the electrochemical properties. TEM result reveals the amorphous carbon around the surface of the particles. At a low rate of 0.1 C, the LiFePO₄/C sample presents a high discharge capacity of 157.8 mAh g⁻¹ which is near the theoretical capacity (170 mAh g⁻¹), and it still attains to 149.1 mAh g⁻¹ after 200 cycles. It also exhibits an excellent rate capacity with high discharge capacities of 143.2 mAh g⁻¹, 137.5 mAh g⁻¹, 123.7 mAh g⁻¹ and 101.6 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.5 C, 1.0 C, 2.0 C and 5.0 C, respectively. EIS results indicate that the charge transfer resistance of LiFePO₄ decreases greatly after carbon coating.     

Synthesis and electrochemical performance of Li2FeSiO4/carbon/carbon nano-tubes for lithium ion battery

Li₂FeSiO₄/carbon/carbon nano-tubes (Li₂FeSiO₄/C/CNTs) and Li₂FeSiO₄/carbon (Li₂FeSiO₄/C) composites were synthesized by a traditional solid-state reaction method and characterized comparatively by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, BET surface area measurement, galvanostatic charge-discharge and AC impedance spectroscopy, respectively. The results revealed that the Li₂FeSiO₄/C/CNT composite exhibited much better rate performance in comparison with the Li₂FeSiO₄/C composite. At 0.2 C, 5 C and 10 C, the former composite electrode delivered a discharge capacity of 142 mAh g⁻¹, 95 mAh g⁻¹, 80 mAh g⁻¹, respectively, and after 100 cycles at 1 C, the discharge capacity remained 95.1% of its initial value.     

Enhanced electrochemical performance of nano-sized LiFePO4/C synthesized by an ultrasonic-assisted co-precipitation method

A simple and effective method, the ultrasonic-assisted co-precipitation method, was employed to synthesize nano-sized LiFePO₄/C. A glucose solution was used as the carbon source to produce in situ carbon to improve the conductivity of LiFePO₄. Ultrasonic irradiation was adopted to control the size and homogenize the LiFePO₄/C particles. The sample was characterized by X-ray powder diffraction, field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). FE-SEM and TEM show that the as-prepared sample has a reduced particle size with a uniform size distribution, which is around 50 nm. A uniform amorphous carbon layer with a thickness of about 4-6 nm on the particle surface was observed, as shown in the HRTEM image. The electrochemical performance was demonstrated by the charge-discharge test and electrochemical impedance spectra measurements. The results indicate that the nano-sized LiFePO₄/C presents enhanced discharge capacities (159, 147 and 135 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.1, 0.5 and 2 C-rate, respectively) and stable cycling performance. This study offers a simple method to design and synthesis nano-sized cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries.     

Enhanced electrochemical performance of carbon nanospheres-LiFePO4 composite by PEG based sol-gel synthesis

The carbon nanospheres-LiFePO₄ (CNSs-LiFePO₄) composite has been synthesized by PEG (polyethylene glycol, mean molecular weight of 30,000) based sol-gel route. Highly conductive CNSs (30-40 nm) were adopted to improve the electronic conductivity of LiFePO₄. PEG was used to promote the dispersion of CNSs with the surface functionalization of CNSs, which could facilitate the coating of CNSs on the surface of the LiFePO₄ particles. The sample was characterized by X-ray diffraction, field emission scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and Raman scattering. Electrochemical performance of the CNSs-LiFePO₄ composite was characterized by the charge-discharge test and electrochemical impedance spectra measurement. The results indicated that LiFePO₄ particles were well coated with the conductive CNSs to overcome the intrinsic low electronic conductivity problem of LiFePO₄. The CNSs-LiFePO₄ composite delivered an enhanced rate capability (146, 128 and 113 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.1 C, 1 C and 5 C rate). The PEG based sol-gel route enables LiFePO₄ networked with CNSs, which offered a higher electrochemical performance.     

Preparation and characterization of nano-particle LiFePO4 and LiFePO4/C by spray-drying and post-annealing method

Pure, nano-sized LiFePO₄ and LiFePO₄/C cathode materials are synthesized by spray-drying and post-annealing method. The influence of the sintering temperature and carbon coating on the structure, particle size, morphology and electrochemical performance of LiFePO₄ cathode material is investigated. The optimum processing conditions are found to be thermal treatment for 10 h at 600 °C. Compared with LiFePO₄, LiFePO₄/C particles are smaller in size due to the inhibition of crystal growth to a great extent by the presence of carbon in the reaction mixture. And that the LiFePO₄/C composite coated with 3.81 wt.% carbon exhibits the best electrode properties with discharge capacities of 139.4, 137.2, 133.5 and 127.3 mAh g⁻¹ at C/5, 1C, 5C and 10C rates, respectively. In addition, it shows excellent cycle stability at different current densities. Even after 50 cycles at the high current density of 10C, a discharge capacity of 117.7 mAh g⁻¹ is obtained (92.4% of its initial value) with only a low capacity fading of 0.15% per cycle.     

LiFePO4 cathode power with high energy density synthesized by water quenching treatment

A water quenching (WQ) method was developed to synthesize LiFePO₄ and C-LiFePO₄. Our results indicate that this synthesis method ensures improved electrochemical activity and small crystal grain size. The synthetic conditions were optimized using orthogonal experiments. The LiFePO₄ sample prepared at the optimized condition showed a maximum discharge capacity of 149.8 mAh g⁻¹ at a C/10 rate. C-LiFePO₄ with a low carbon content of 0.93% and a high discharge specific capacity of 163.8 mAh g⁻¹ has also been obtained using this method. Water quenching treatment shows outstanding improvement of the electrochemical performance of LiFePO₄.     

Optimization of electrochemical properties of LiFePO4/C prepared by an aqueous solution method using sucrose

LiFePO₄ can be used as a positive electrode material for lithium-ion batteries by making composite with electrical conductive carbonaceous materials. In this study, LiFePO₄/C (carbon) composite was prepared by a soft chemistry route, in which sucrose was used as a carbon source of a low price. We tried to optimize a Li/(LiFePO₄/C) cell performance through changing synthetic conditions and discussed the factors affecting the electrochemical performances of the cell, such as the amount of the carbon source, synthetic temperature, gas flow rate of pyrolysis and the formation of secondary phases. It was found that the connection of the residual carbon and Fe₂P to LiFePO₄ particles and the amount of these two phases were important factors. In our experimental conditions, LiFePO₄/C including 9.72 wt.% of residual carbon, prepared at 800 °C for 12 h showed the highest reversible capacity and the best C rate performance among the synthesized materials; 130 mAh g⁻¹ at 10C rate and 50 °C.     

Influence of carbon sources on LiFePO4/C composites synthesized by the high-temperature high-energy ball milling method

Carbon-coated LiFePO₄ composites were synthesized by a new method of high-temperature high-energy ball milling (HTHEBM). Fe₂O₃ and LiH₂PO₄ were used as raw materials. Glucose, sucrose, citric acid and active carbon were used as reducing agents and carbon sources, respectively. In this method, high-energy ball milling and carbon coating worked together and, therefore, fine and homogeneous LiFePO₄/C particles with excellent properties were obtained in a relatively short synthesis time of 9 h. Moreover, the synthesis process could be completely finished at a relatively lower temperature of 600 °C for high-energy ball milling transforming mechanical energy into thermal energy. The results of X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and electrochemical performance tests indicated that carbon source had an important influence on the properties of LiFePO₄/C composites synthesized by the HTHEBM method. It was proved that the LiFePO₄ composites coated with glucose had the best properties with 1 μm geometric mean diameter and 150.3 mA h g⁻¹ initial discharge capacity at a current rate of 0.1 C. After the 20th cycle test, the reversible capacity was 148 mA h g⁻¹ at 0.1 C, showing a retention ratio to the initial capacity of 98.5%.     

Emulsion drying synthesis of olivine LiFePO4/C composite and its electrochemical properties as lithium intercalation material

The electroactive LiFePO₄/C nano-composite has been synthesized by an emulsion drying method. During burning-out the oily emulsion precipitates in an air-limited atmosphere at 300 °C, amorphous or low crystalline carbon was generated along with releasing carbon oxide gases, and trivalent iron as a cheap starting material was immediately reduced to the divalent one at this stage as confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, leading to a low crystalline LiFePO₄/C composite. Heat-treatment of the low crystalline LiFePO₄/C in an Ar atmosphere resulted in a well-ordered olivine structure, as refined by Rietveld refinement of the X-ray diffraction pattern. From secondary electron microscopic and scanning transmission electron microscopic observations with the corresponding elemental mapping images of iron and phosphorous, it was found that the LiFePO₄ powders are modified by fine carbon. The in situ formation of the nano-sized carbon during crystallization of LiFePO₄ brought about two advantages: (i) an optimized particle size of LiFePO₄, and (ii) a uniform distribution of fine carbon in the product. These effects of the fine carbon on LiFePO₄/C composite led to high capacity retention upon cycling at 25 and 50 °C and high rate capability, resulting from a great enhancement of electric conductivity as high as 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹. That is, the obtained capacity was higher than 90 mAh (g-phosphate)⁻¹ by applying a higher current density of about 1000 mA g⁻¹ (11 C) at 50 °C.     

Synthesis of LiFePO4/carbon composite from nano-FePO4 by a novel stearic acid assisted rheological phase method

LiFePO₄/carbon composite was synthesized at 600 °C for 4 h in an Ar atmosphere by a stearic acid assisted rheological phase method using amorphous nano-FePO₄ as the iron source. XRD, SEM and TEM observations show that the LiFePO₄/carbon composite has good crystallinity, ultrafine and well-dispersed particles of 60–150 nm size and in situ carbon coated on the surface of LiFePO₄ crystallites. The synthesized LiFePO₄/carbon composite shows a high discharge capacity of 160 mAh g⁻¹ and 155 mAh g⁻¹ at rates of 0.5 C and 1 C, respectively. Even at a high current density of 30 C, the material still presents a discharge capacity of 93 mAh g⁻¹ and exhibits an excellent cycling performance.     

An optimized Ni doped LiFePO4/C nanocomposite with excellent rate performance

Both Ni doping and carbon coating are adopted to synthesize a nano-sized LiFePO₄ cathode material through a simple solid-state reaction. It is found that the Ni²⁺ has been successfully doped into LiFePO₄ without affecting the phospho-olivine structure from the XRD result. The images of SEM and TEM show that the size of particles is distributed in the range of 20-60 nm, and all the particles are coated with carbon completely. The results of XPS show the valence state of Fe and Ni in the LiFePO₄. The electronic conductivity of the material is as high as 2.1 × 10⁻¹ S cm⁻¹, which should be ascribed to the coefficient of the conductive carbon network and Ni doping. As a cathode material for lithium-ion batteries, the Ni doped LiFePO₄/C nanocomposite delivers a discharge capacity of 170 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.2 C, approaching the theoretical value. Moreover, the material shows excellent high-rate charge and discharge capability and long-term cyclability. At the high rates of 10 and 15 C, this material exhibits high capacities of 150 and 130 mAh g⁻¹, retaining 95% after 5500 cycles and 93% after 7200 cycles, respectively. Therefore, the as-prepared material is capable of such large-scale applications as electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.     

Synthesis and characterization of LiFePO4/(Ag + C) composite cathodes with nano-carbon webs

LiFePO₄/(Ag + C) composite cathodes with a new type of nano-sized carbon webs were synthesized by two methods of an aqueous co-precipitation and a sol-gel process, respectively. Simultaneous thermogravimetric-differential thermal analysis indicates that the crystallization temperature of LiFePO₄ is about 455-466 °C, which is close to the pyrolysis temperature of polypropylene, 460 °C. The silver and carbon co-modifying does not affect the olivine structure of LiFePO₄ but improves its kinetics in terms of discharge capacity and rate capability. Discharge capacities were improved from 153.4 mA h g^− 1 of LiFePO₄/C to 160.5 mA h g^− 1and 162.1 mA h g^− 1 for LiFePO₄/(Ag + C) cathodes synthesized by the co-precipitation and sol-gel methods, respectively. The possible reasons for the small difference in discharge capacity of two LiFePO₄/(Ag + C) cathodes were discussed. AC impedance measurements show that the Ag + C co-modification decreases the charge transfer resistance of LiFePO₄/(Ag + C) cathodes.     

Small capacity decay of lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) synthesized continuously in supercritical water: Comparison with solid-state method

Nanosize lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄) particles are synthesized using a continuous supercritical hydrothermal synthesis method at 25 MPa and 400 °C under various flow rates. The properties of LiFePO₄ synthesized in supercritical water including purity, crystallinity, atomic composition, particle size, surface area and thermal stability are compared with those of particles synthesized using a conventional solid-state method. Smaller size particles ranging 200-800 nm, higher BET surface area ranging 6.3-15.9 m² g⁻¹ and higher crystallinity are produced in supercritical water compared to those of the solid-state synthesized particles (3-15 μm; 2.4 m² g⁻¹). LiFePO₄ synthesized in supercritical water exhibit higher discharge capacity of 70-80 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.1 C after 30 cycles than that of the solid-state synthesized LiFePO₄ (60 mAh g⁻¹), which is attributed to the smaller size particles and the higher crystallinity. Smaller capacity decay at from 135 to 125 mAh g⁻¹ is observed during the 30 cycles in carbon-coated LiFePO₄ synthesized using supercritical water while rapid capacity decay from 158 to 140 mAh g⁻¹ is observed in the carbon-coated LiFePO₄ synthesized using the solid-state method.     

1-Alkyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ionic liquids as highly safe electrolyte for Li/LiFePO4 battery

Several 1-alkyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ionic liquids (alkyl-DMimTFSI) were prepared by changing carbon chain lengths and configuration of the alkyl group, and their electrochemical properties and compatibility with Li/LiFePO₄ battery electrodes were investigated in detail. Experiments indicated the type of ionic liquid has a wide electrochemical window (−0.16 to 5.2 V vs. Li⁺/Li) and are theoretically feasible as an electrolyte for batteries with metallic lithium as anode. Addition of vinylene carbonate (VC) improves the compatibility of alkyl-DMimTFSI-based electrolytes towards lithium anode and LiFePO₄ cathode, and enhanced the formation of solid electrolyte interface to protect lithium anodes from corrosion. The electrochemical properties of the ionic liquids obviously depend on carbon chain length and configuration of the alkyl, including ionic conductivity, viscosity, and charge/discharge capacity etc. Among five alkyl-DMimTFSI-LiTFSI-VC electrolytes, Li/LiFePO₄ battery with the electrolyte-based on amyl-DMimTFSI shows best charge/discharge capacity and reversibility due to relatively high conductivity and low viscosity, its initial discharge capacity is about 152.6 mAh g⁻¹, which the value is near to theoretical specific capacity (170 mAh g⁻¹). Although the battery with electrolyte-based isooctyl-DMimTFSI has lowest initial discharge capacity (8.1 mAh g⁻¹) due to relatively poor conductivity and high viscosity, the value will be dramatically added to 129.6 mAh g⁻¹ when 10% propylene carbonate was introduced into the ternary electrolyte as diluent. These results clearly indicates this type of ionic liquids have fine application prospect for lithium batteries as highly safety electrolytes in the future.     

Preparation and characterization of nano-sized LiFePO4 by low heating solid-state coordination method and microwave heating

The precursors of LiFePO₄ were prepared by low heating solid-state coordination method using lithium acetate, ammonium dihydric phosphate, ferrous oxalate and citric acid as raw materials. Olivine phase LiFePO₄ as a cathode material for lithium-ion batteries was successfully synthesized by microwave heating in a few minutes. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) were used to characterize its structure and morphology. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and charge-discharge cycling performance were used to characterize its electrochemical properties. The results showed that the grain size of the optimal sample was about 40-50 nm, and the as-prepared particles were homogeneous. The nano-sized LiFePO₄ obtained has a high electrochemical capacity (125 mAh g⁻¹) and stable cycle ability.     

Hydrothermal synthesis of LiMn2O4/C composite as a cathode for rechargeable lithium-ion battery with excellent rate capability

A spinel LiMn₂O₄/C composite was synthesized by hydrothermally treating a precursor of manganese oxide/carbon (MO/C) composite in 0.1 M LiOH solution at 180 °C for 24 h, where the precursor was prepared by reducing potassium permanganate with acetylene black (AB). The AB in the precursor serves as the reducing agent to synthesize the LiMn₂O₄ during the hydrothermal process; the excess of AB remains in the hydrothermal product, forming the LiMn₂O₄/C composite, where the remaining AB helps to improve the electronic conductivity of the composite. The contact between LiMn₂O₄ and C in our composite is better than that in the physically mixed LiMn₂O₄/C material. The electrochemical performance of the LiMn₂O₄/C composite was investigated; the material delivered a high capacity of 83 mAh g⁻¹ and remained 92% of its initial capacity after 200 cycles at a current density of 2 A g⁻¹, indicating its excellent rate capability as well as good cyclic performance.     

Tin dioxide/carbon nanotube composites with high uniform SnO2 loading as anode materials for lithium ion batteries

SnO₂/multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) composites were prepared by the solvothermal method and subsequent heat treatment at 360 °C. The samples were characterized by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Results on the higher SnO₂ content composite sample indicate that a uniform layer of SnO₂ nanocrystals with crystal size around 5 nm was deposited on the surface of the carbon nanotubes. The composite demonstrates a reversible lithium storage capacity of 709.9 mAh g⁻¹ at the first cycle and excellent cyclic retention up to 100 cycles as anode for lithium ion batteries.     

Carbon coated Li3V2(PO4)3 cathode material prepared by a PVA assisted sol-gel method

Carbon coated Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃ cathode material was prepared by a poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) assisted sol-gel method. PVA was used both as the gelating agent and the carbon source. XRD analysis showed that the material was well crystallized. The particle size of the material was ranged between 200 and 500 nm. HRTEM revealed that the material was covered by a uniform surface carbon layer with a thickness of 80 Å. The existence of surface carbon layer was further confirmed by Raman scattering. The electrochemical properties of the material were investigated by charge-discharge cycling, CV and EIS techniques. The material showed good cycling performance, which had a reversible discharge capacity of 100 mAh g⁻¹ when cycled at 1 C rate. The apparent Li⁺ diffusion coefficients of the material ranged between 9.5 × 10⁻¹⁰ and 0.9 × 10⁻¹⁰ cm² s⁻¹, which were larger than those of olivine LiFePO₄. The large lithium diffusion coefficient of Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃ has been attributed to its special NASICON-type structure.