Thermal aspects, material considerations and cooling strategies in cryogenic machining

 Conventional machining prolongs tool life by using cutting oils to cool the metal cutting process. Unfortunately, the cutting fluid contaminates the environment, and endangers the health of humans. Cryogenic machining offers an environmentally safe alternative to conventional machining by using liquid nitrogen, which can be naturally recycled. However, for the cryogenic machining process to be effective and economical, manufacturers must select the correct cooling approach. This paper describes our experimental study to investigate the cryogenic properties of some common cutting tool materials and five workpiece materials of industrial interest: low carbon steel, AISI 1010, high carbon steel AISI 1070, bearing steel AISI 52100, titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V, and cast aluminum alloy A390. The paper addresses the major aspects of heat generated in metal cutting in terms of its effects on chip formation, tool wear, and on the functional integrity of the machined component. The paper then discusses the cooling strategies for cryogenic machining each material based on the thermal effects and material properties. The investigators conclude that the cooling approach must be finely adjusted for different materials to obtain the optimum effectiveness in cryogenic machining. The goal of our study is to provide a basis for designing the cryogenic machining system. Received: 25 November 1998 / Accepted: 12 February 1999     

Tool wear in cryogenic turning of Ti-6Al-4V alloy

Though titanium alloys are being increasingly sought in a wide variety of engineering and biomedical applications, their manufacturability, especially machining and grinding imposes lot of constraints. Rapid tool wear encountered in machining of titanium alloys is a challenge that needs to be overcome. Cryogenic machining with liquid nitrogen as coolant is being investigated by researchers to reduce the cutting zone temperatures and enhance the tool life. The effects of cryogenic cooling have been studied on growth and nature tool wear in the present investigation while turning Ti-6Al-4V alloy bars with microcrystalline uncoated carbide inserts under dry, wet and cryogenic cooling environments in the cutting velocity range of 70-100 m/min. Cryogenic cooling by liquid nitrogen jets enabled substantial improvement in tool life through reduction in adhesion-dissolution-diffusion tool wear through control of machining temperature desirably at the cutting zone.     

Experimental studies on the cryogenic machining of biodegradable ZK60 Mg alloy using micro-textured tools

Reducing the contact area between the cutting tool rake surface and chip promotes the machining performance of the work material and increases the tool life. Magnesium alloys are ductile-lightweight materials that form continuous chips during machining. The present investigation discusses the orthogonal turning of ZK60 magnesium alloy with linearly textured cutting inserts under both dry and liquid nitrogen (LN₂) cooling conditions. Linear grooves that are parallel and perpendicular to chip flow direction were created using Nd-YAG laser on the tungsten carbide cutting inserts. The effect of texturing combined with the application of LN₂ cooling is studied by evaluating the machining temperature and forces, microhardness, surface roughness and tool wear. Textured tools considerably minimize the liaison area of the chip with the rake plane compared to non-textured tools, which resulted in favorable effects in machinability. In case of cryogenic machining, textured tools substantially minimize the friction by the coupled effect of micro-pool lubrication and the formation of thin-film lubrication between the tool–chip/tool–work interfaces. Parallel-textured tools aided with cryogenic cooling exhibit superior performance during machining among the different types of tools employed in the present investigation.     

Fuzzy Modeling and Analysis of Machining Parameters in Machining Titanium Alloy

Titanium alloys are utilized in many engineering fields such as chemical, industrial, marine, and aerospace due to their unique properties. Machining of these materials causes severe problems. At high temperatures, they become chemically active and tend to react with tool materials. In the present study, fuzzy logic (a tool in artificial intelligence) is used for the prediction of cutting parameters in turning titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V). The parameters considered in this study are cutting speed, feed, and the depth of cut. Fuzzy rule-based modeling is employed for prediction of tool flank wear, surface roughness, and specific cutting pressure in machining of titanium alloy. These models can be effectively used to predict the tool flank wear, surface roughness, and specific cutting pressure in machining of titanium alloys. Analysis of the influences of the individual important machining parameters on the responses have been carried out and presented in this study.     

Cryogenic turning of the Ti–6Al–4V alloy with modified cutting tool inserts

Productivity in the machining of titanium alloys is adversely affected by rapid tool wear as a consequence of high cutting zone temperature. Conventional cutting fluids are ineffective in controlling the cutting temperature in the cutting zone. In this research work, an attempt has been made to investigate the effect of liquid nitrogen when it is applied to the rake surface, and the main and auxiliary flank surfaces through holes made in the cutting tool insert during the turning of the Ti–6Al–4V alloy. The cryogenic results of the cutting temperature, cutting forces, surface roughness and tool wear of the modified cutting tool insert have been compared with those of wet machining. It has been observed that in the cryogenic cooling method, the cutting temperature was reduced by 61–66% and the surface roughness was reduced to a maximum of 36% over wet machining. The cutting force was decreased by 35–42% and the flank wear was reduced by 27–39% in cryogenic cooling over that of wet machining. Cryogenic cooling enabled a substantial reduction in the geometry of tool wear through the control of the tool wear mechanisms. The application of liquid nitrogen to the heat generation zones through holes made in the cutting tool insert was considered to be more effective over conventional machining.     

增材制造Ti-6Al-4V合金组织调控研究现状

增材制造技术可实现复杂钛合金零件的快速成形,制造的Ti-6Al-4V合金具有较高的强度以及优异的高温性能,被广泛应用于航空、医疗等各大领域。综述了金属增材制造的典型工艺,分析了Ti-6Al-4V合金的相变特征,总结了选区激光熔化制造Ti-6Al-4V的力学性能和组织调控方法,着重分析了热处理温度、冷却速率、变质处理以及超声冲击等对合金组织的影响;展望了增材制造Ti-6Al-4V合金的主要发展方向。     

Performance of Diamond and CBN Single-Layered Grinding Wheels in Grinding Titanium

For their unique properties, titanium alloys have found wide application in high-tech engineering. But these alloys are difficult to machine and to grind for their high chemical reactivity and poor thermal properties, which aggravate the grinding zone temperature and its detrimental effects. The objective of this article is a comparison of the grindability of Ti-6Al-4V regarding cubic boron nitride (CBN) and diamond brazed type monolayered grinding wheels under the influence of different environments. In grinding this alloy, cryogenic cooling did not help visibly for both CBN and diamond, but the application of oil and also of alkaline coolant significantly gave the best results.     

Investigation of cryogenic cooling effect in reaming Ti-6AL-4V alloy

This research article is based mainly on the investigation of the effect of cryogenic machining, while reaming Titanium grade 5 alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) material. Cutting speed (V_c) and feed rate (f) are two input parameters at three different levels for a constant depth of the hole. The output parameters considered by using a cryogenic LN₂ cooling compared to a conventional flood cooling are torque (M_t), thrust force (F_t), cutting temperature (T), quality of the hole (circularity and cylindricity), surface roughness (R_a) and chip morphology. The results show cryogenic liquid nitrogen (LN₂) cooling resulting in 15–31% reduction in the cutting temperature, 23–57% reduction in the thrust force and 14–65% reduction in torque. Higher surface roughness, circularity (Cir) and cylindricity (Cyl) were observed in the cryogenic LN₂ cooling condition. Furthermore, better chip breakability was observed in the cryogenic LN₂ cooling condition. No drastic change in the microstructure was observed in both flood and cryogenic LN₂ cooling. Increase in microhardness by 10–16% and 8–19% in cryogenic LN₂ cooling over flood cooling was observed.     

Investigation on tool wear and tool life prediction in micro-milling of Ti-6Al-4V

Short tool life and rapid tool wear in micromachining of hard-to-machine materials remain a barrier to the process being economically viable. In this study, standard procedures and conditions set by the ISO for tool life testing in milling were used to analyze the wear of tungsten carbide micro-end-milling tools through slot milling conducted on titanium alloy Ti-6 Al-4 V. Tool wear was characterized by flank wear rate,cutting-edge radius change, and tool volumetric change. The effect of machining parameters, such as cutting speed and feedrate, on tool wear was investigated with reference to surface roughness and geometric accuracy of the finished workpiece. Experimental data indicate different modes of tool wear throughout machining, where nonuniform flank wear and abrasive wear are the dominant wear modes. High cutting speed and low feedrate can reduce the tool wear rate and improve the tool life during micromachining.However, the low feedrate enhances the plowing effect on the cutting zone, resulting in reduced surface quality and leading to burr formation and premature tool failure. This study concludes with a proposal of tool rejection criteria for micro-milling of Ti-6 Al-4 V.     

Fabrication of low-cost Ti-1Al-8V-5Fe by powder metallurgy with TiH2 and FeV80 alloy

The low-cost Ti-1Al-8V-5Fe (Ti-185) alloy with a high strength is prepared by cold-compaction-and-sintering powder metallurgy process with low-cost titanium hydride (TiH₂) powders and FeV₈₀ master alloy powders. The use of simple technique process and cheap alloying elements can lead to the cost reduction for titanium alloys. The thermal decomposition of TiH₂-1Al-8V-5Fe is analyzed by thermal gravimetric analyses and differential scanning calorimetry simultaneous thermal analyzer. The shrinkage behavior of TiH₂-1Al-8V-5Fe during the sintering process is employed by the high-sensitivity dilatometer system. The microstructure of sintered Ti-185 consists of β-phase and lamellar α-phase. The results show that the sintered Ti-185 alloys have the relative density of 97.8%, homogeneous composition, and fine grains. The yield strength and the hardness are 1461?MPa and 40.1?±?1.0 HRC (unit of Rockwell hardness), which are better than that of as-cast Ti-185.     

Some metallurgical aspects of chip formation in cutting Ti-6wt.%Al-4wt.%V alloy

Adiabatic shear banding is a phenomenon observed in machining titanium and some other metals and alloys as well. The shear localized chips are important in the chip disposal process, machined surface integrity and the automation of machining operations. It is therefore necessary to understand the mechanisms of metal cutting such as the formation of shear banding in the produced chips. In this paper, the behaviour of the chip formation is investigated using various metallurgical analysis techniques. It was found, in cutting Ti-6wt.%Al-4wt.%V titanium alloy, that some non-diffusional phase transformation took place in the shear localized chips. The process of chip formation with shear banding and the effects of cutting conditions on shear banding frequency were also studied. The results of these tests are presented in this paper.     

Spanen metallischer Konstruktionswerkstoffe geringer Dichte

Machining of light metals Magnesium, aluminium and titanium are the only light metals that are also used in construction. They offer a significant prerequisite for weight reduction of workpieces. Especially the automotive and the aerospace industry have an increasing interest in using these lightweight materials as well as their alloys. The machining of light metals however is accompanied with several problems. With increasing the cutting speed high adhesive and abrasive effects between the cutting tool material and the workpiece material can occur. These effects lead to unsteady processes and also have a negative influence on the quality of functional surfaces as well as their subsurface properties. The influence of cutting tool materials, tool coatings and cutting conditions affecting the process when cutting magnesium, aluminium and titanium alloys is described. Adhesion can be reduced when machining magnesium and aluminium alloys in particular by the application of diamond-coated tools and by PCD-inserts. Diamond tools, due to their low coefficient of friction and the high thermal conductivity, furthermore contribute to the decrease of the thermal load within the contact zone between workpiece and cutting tool. Subsequently the danger of magnesium chip ignition can be minimized. For the machining of titanium alloys modern coatings based on (Ti,Al)N and TiCTiN are applied to reduce the adhesive and abrasive wear.     

Ti-6Al-4V熔模精密铸造充型及凝固过程计算机模拟

应用自行开发的基于微机上运行的铸件凝固 /充型计算机模拟软件 ,对Ti-6Al-4V钛合金薄壁件精密铸造的充型及凝固传热过程进行了模拟分析 .应用自行安装的多通道钨铼热电耦温度数据计算机采集、分析系统 ,测定了该钛合金起吊接头精密铸件的凝固冷却曲线 ,获取了该合金有关的凝固参数 .对包括上述零件在内的钛合金薄壁件精密铸造的充型过程及凝固传热的温度分布进行了数值模拟 ,模拟计算与实测结果合理吻合 .基于该研究可对其精密铸造工艺进行优化设计 .     

Environment Friendly Machining of Ni–Cr–Co Based Super Alloy using Different Sustainable Techniques

In order to eradicate the use of mineral based cutting fluid, the machining of Ni–Cr–Co based Nimonic 90 alloy was conducted using environment friendly sustainable techniques. In this work, uncoated tungsten carbide inserts were employed for the machining under dry (untreated and cryogenically treated), MQL, and cryogenic cutting modes. The influence of all these techniques was examined by considering tool wear, surface finish, chip contact length, chip thickness, and chip morphology. It was found that the cryogenically treated tools outperformed the untreated tools at 40 m/min. At cutting speed of 80 m/min, MQL and direct cooling with liquid nitrogen brought down the flank wear by 50% in comparison to dry machining. Similarly at higher cutting speed, MQL and cryogenic cooling techniques provided the significant improvement in terms of nose wear, crater wear area, and chip thickness value. However, both dry and MQL modes outperformed the cryogenic cooling machining in terms of surface roughness value at all the cutting speeds. Overall cryotreated tools was able to provide satisfactory results at lower speed (40 m/min). Whereas both MQL and cryogenic cooling methods provided the significantly improved results at higher cutting speeds (60 and 80 m/min) over dry machining.     

Experimental investigations on cryogenic cooling by liquid nitrogen in the end milling of hardened steel

Milling of hardened steel generates excessive heat during the chip formation process, which increases the temperature of cutting tool and accelerates tool wear. Application of conventional cutting fluid in milling process may not effectively control the heat generation also it has inherent health and environmental problems. To minimize health hazard and environmental problems caused by using conventional cutting fluid, a cryogenic cooling set up is developed to cool tool–chip interface using liquid nitrogen (LN₂). This paper presents results on the effect of LN₂ as a coolant on machinability of hardened AISI H13 tool steel for varying cutting speed in the range of 75–125 m/min during end milling with PVD TiAlN coated carbide inserts at a constant feed rate. The results show that machining with LN₂ lowers cutting temperature, tool flank wear, surface roughness and cutting forces as compared with dry and wet machining. With LN₂ cooling, it has been found that the cutting temperature was reduced by 57–60% and 37–42%; the tool flank wear was reduced by 29–34% and 10–12%; the surface roughness was decreased by 33–40% and 25–29% compared to dry and wet machining. The cutting forces also decreased moderately compared to dry and wet machining. This can be attributed to the fact that LN₂ machining provides better cooling and lubrication through substantial reduction in the cutting zone temperature.     

Relationships of strength to composition and phase constitution for three aged beta titanium alloys

X-ray diffraction techniques were used to study properties of three beta titanium alloys in the alpha aged condition. The alloys studied were Beta 111 (Ti-11.5 Mo-6 Zr-4.5 Sn), Beta C (Ti-3 Al-8 V-6 Cr-4 Mo-4 Zr), and 8-8-2-3 (Ti-8 V-8 Mo-2 Fe-3 Al). The volume percentage of alpha phase present and the lattice parameters of both the alpha and beta structures were determined for different ageing treatments. Ultimate tensile strength is related to both alpha content and beta unit cell size in these alloys. However, at high strength levels, beta unit cell size is a more sensitive indicator of tensile strength than percentage of alpha phase. The effects of precipitation hardening mechanisms and alloy partitioning on strengthening are discussed.     

Thermophysical Properties of Solid and Liquid Ti-6Al-4V (TA6V) Alloy

Ti-6Al-4V (TA6V) titanium alloy is widely used in industrial applications such as aeronautic and aerospace due to its good mechanical properties at high temperatures. Experiments on two different resistive pulse heating devices (CEA Valduc and TU-Graz) have been carried out in order to study thermophysical properties (such as electrical resistivity, volume expansion, heat of fusion, heat capacity, normal spectral emissivity, thermal diffusivity, and thermal conductivity) of both solid and liquid Ti-6Al-4V. Fast time-resolved measurements of current, voltage, and surface radiation and shadowgraphs of the volume have been undertaken. At TU-Graz, a fast laser polarimeter has been used for determining the emissivity of liquid Ti-6Al-4V at 684.5 nm and a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) for measuring the heat capacity of solid Ti-6Al-4V. This study deals with the specific behavior of the different solid phase transitions (effect of heating rate) and the melting region, and emphasizes the liquid state (T > 2000 K).     

基于α'组织设计适于激光立体成形的新型高塑性Ti-4.13Al-9.36V合金

为了提高Ti-6Al-4V合金的加工硬化率和塑性,基于其团簇成分式12[Al-Ti₁₂](AlTi₂)+5[Al-Ti₁₄](V₂Ti)设计成分式为4[Al-Ti₁₂](AlTi₂)+12[Al-Ti₁₄](V₂Ti)的(Ti-4.13Al-9.36V, %)合金,采用激光立体成形工艺制备Ti-4.13Al-9.36V和Ti-6.05Al-3.94V(对比合金),研究了沉积态和固溶温度对其显微组织和力学性能的影响。结果表明,沉积态Ti-4.13Al-9.36V和Ti-6.05Al-3.94V合金的显微组织均由基体外延生长的初生β柱状晶和晶内细小的网篮α板条组成。Ti-6.05Al-3.94V合金的初生β柱状晶的宽度约为770 μm,α板条的宽度约为0.71 μm;而Ti-4.13Al-9.36V合金的初生β柱状晶的宽度显著减小到606 μm,α板条的宽度约为0.48 μm。经920℃固溶-淬火处理后Ti-6.05Al-3.94V样品的显微组织为α'+α相,其室温拉伸屈服强度约为893 MPa,抗拉强度约为1071 MPa,延伸率约为3%。经750℃固溶-淬火处理后Ti-4.13Al-9.36V样品的显微组织为α'+α相,与α'马氏体相比,应力诱发的α'马氏体能显著地提高合金的加工硬化能力,其室温拉伸屈服强度约为383 MPa,抗拉强度约为 989 MPa,延伸率达到了17%。这表明,根据团簇理论模型调控α'+α的显微组织能有效提高激光立体成形Ti合金的加工硬化能力和塑性。     

不同冷却润滑方式对切削SiCP/Al复合材料刀具磨损的影响

为探究不同冷却润滑方式对切削SiC_P/Al复合材料刀具磨损的影响,进行了干切削（Dry）、微量润滑（MQL）、液氮（LN₂）、切削油（Oil）和乳化液（Emulsion）共五种冷却润滑条件下的车削实验,分析了冷却润滑方式对刀具边界磨损、刀具破损和后刀面磨损的影响。结果表明:MQL和LN₂有更佳的流体冲刷效果,可以将脱落的SiC颗粒及时带离切削区,减少边界磨损; Oil和Emulsion冲刷效果较差,会加剧边界磨损。LN₂的使用会增加刀具受到的热应力和机械冲击,积屑瘤发生完全脱落,造成切削过程不平稳,当切削距离达到1 100 m时,刀具发生破损; Oil切削时,严重的边界磨损导致刀尖部位尺寸减小,强度降低,当切削距离达到825 m时发生了刀具破损。MQL良好的润滑渗透性和LN₂有效的冷却效果可以减少后刀面磨损。因此,MQL兼具冷却、润滑和流体冲刷效果,更加适合作为切削SiC_P/Al复合材料的冷却润滑方式。      

600 ℃高温钛合金发展现状与展望

钛及钛合金具有比强度高、耐腐蚀性能和低温性能好、热强度高等优点,是航空航天工业中重要的结构材料。同时,相比于铝、镁轻合金,钛合金高温性能优异,因而在航空发动机耐高温部件中也有着相当大的应用潜力。1954年,美国研发出了第一种实用型高温钛合金Ti-6Al-4V,高温长时使用温度为300～350℃,综合性能良好,在之后的很长一段时间内被广泛使用。随着航空航天工业的不断发展,尤其是航空发动机的发展,其他各国也都相继研发出了一些使用温度更高的高温钛合金,直至1984年,英国开发出了世界上第一个使用温度达600℃的高温钛合金IMI834。IMI834的典型特点是在原有的近α型高温钛合金Ti-Al-SnZr-Mo-Si体系中加入了0.06%C,扩大了两相区的加工窗口,优化了组织。在此之后,美国于1988年在原有高温钛合金Ti-6542S的基础上通过调整一些合金元素的含量也获得了一种实用温度为600℃的高温钛合金Ti1100。1992年,俄罗斯在BT18Y的基础上用5%的高熔点W代替1%Nb也开发出了一种达600℃的高温钛合金BT36。而国内高温钛合金起步相对较晚,前期以仿制为主,后逐渐形成了以添加稀土元素为特色的高温钛合金体系,典型的有中科院金属研究所和宝钛集团研发的Ti60和西北有色金属研究院自主研发的Ti600,它们的实际使用温度均为600℃,综合性能优异。总体来说,目前高温钛合金的使用温度很难突破600℃,主要是由于使用温度高于600℃时合金的热强性与热稳定性难以匹配协调,并且合金的抗氧化性急剧下降,表面氧化严重,导致合金热稳定性以及疲劳性能下降,甚至可能使航空发动机高压压气机部位的零部件存在"钛火"的风险。本文综述了国内外600℃及600℃以上的高温钛合金的发展现状。重点介绍了美国的Ti1100、英国的IMI834、俄罗斯的BT36、中国的Ti60、TG6和Ti600(600℃高温钛合金)以及中国的Ti65和Ti750(600℃以上高温钛合金)。总结了各国发展高温钛合金的思路,指出了限制高温钛合金向更高使用温度发展的瓶颈并提出了可能的解决途径。从控制α2相大小、形态、含量以及改善热加工工艺的角度对未来高温钛合金的发展进行了展望,以期为进一步提高高温钛合金的使用温度、优化高温钛合金性能提供指导。