Women and Men Engineering Students: Anticipation of Family and Work Roles

The underrepresentation of women in engineering typically is explained by gender differences in occupational interests, attitudes, or abilities. This paper examines the gender differences hypothesis as well as anticipated role conflicts of women and men students. We explore the academic, career, and family attitudes and expectations of women and men majoring in engineering. Men and women are remarkably similar in their abilities, academic experiences, and career influences. Women, however, are more likely to anticipate that lack of confidence in their own abilities and conflicts between work and family responsibilities will be barriers to success in their careers. These differences, along with several differences in orientations toward family roles, suggest that a role conflict argument better accounts for the disparity in the career development of men and women engineers. Suggestions for addressing these role conflicts before women begin working as engineers are provided.     

An Analysis of Motivation Constructs with First‐Year Engineering Students: Relationships Among Expectancies,Values, Achievement,and Career Plans

Background Researchers have identified many factors affecting undergraduate engineering students' achievement and persistence. Yet, much of this research focuses on persistence within academia, with less attention to career plans after graduation. Furthermore, the relative influence of expectancy‐versus value‐related beliefs on students' achievement and career plans is not fully understood. Purpose (Hypothesis ) To address these gaps, we examined the relationships among the following motivation constructs for female and male first‐year engineering students: (a) expectancy‐related constructs that included engineering self‐efficacy (i.e., a judgment of one's ability to perform a task in engineering) and expectancy for success in engineering (i.e., the belief in the possibility of success in engineering); (b) value‐related constructs that included identification with engineering (i.e., the extent to which one defines the self through a role or performance in engineering) and engineering values (i.e., beliefs related to engineering interest, importance, and usefulness); (c) engineering achievement; and (d) engineering career plans. Design /Method Participants included 363 first‐year engineering students at a large state university. The students completed an online survey instrument in the first and second semester of their first year. Results Students' expectancy‐ and value‐related beliefs decreased over the first year for both men and women. Men reported higher levels for expectancy‐related beliefs than women. Expectancy‐related constructs predicted achievement better than the value‐related constructs, whereas value‐related constructs predicted career plans better for both men and women. Conclusions Expectancy‐ and value‐related constructs predicted different outcomes. Thus, both types of constructs are needed to understand students' achievement and career plans in engineering.     

Widening the Net: National Estimates of Gender Disparities in Engineering

This paper explores the causes behind the severe under‐representation of women in engineering. Based on national data on undergraduate engineering programs, this study presents cross‐sectional estimates of male and female student retention. Contrary to widespread beliefs, the study found that overall and in most disciplines there is no differential attrition by gender. Instead, results suggest that gender disparities in engineering are largely driven by inadequate enrollment (not inadequate retention) of women. The paper concludes that outreach—within institutions of higher education, across institutions (into two‐year colleges, middle and high schools), and into K‐12 curricular reform—are needed to address what is, at its very core, a recruitment problem.     

Gender‐Informed Mentoring Strategies for Women Engineering Scholars: On Establishing a Caring Community

Improved mentoring of women graduate students and young faculty is one strategy for increasing the presence, retention and advancement of women scholars in engineering. We explore the sociological literature on interpersonally‐ and institutionally‐generated gender roles and dynamics that make the construction and maintenance of mentoring relationships especially difficult for women in male‐dominated fields. In addition, we review non‐traditional strategies including peer‐, multiple‐ and collective mentorships that are likely to be more successful for most women (and many men). Finally, organizational change strategies designed to provide a more egalitarian and cooperative atmosphere in engineering programs and departments are presented. These ideas represent a social contract for a caring community more supportive of all members' personal and professional growth and success.     

Persistence,Engagement, and Migration in Engineering Programs

Records from the Multiple‐Institution Database for Investigating Engineering Longitudinal Development indicate that engineering students are typical of students in other majors with respect to: persistence in major; persistence by gender and ethnicity; racial/ethnic distribution; and grade distribution. Data from the National Survey of Student Engagement show that this similarity extends to engagement outcomes including course challenge, faculty interaction, satisfaction with institution, and overall satisfaction. Engineering differs from other majors most notably by a dearth of female students and a low rate of migration into the major. Noting the similarity of students of engineering and other majors with respect to persistence and engagement, we propose that engagement is a precursor to persistence. We explore this hypothesis using data from the Academic Pathways Study of the Center for the Advancement of Engineering Education. Further exploration reveals that although persistence and engagement do not vary as much as expected by discipline, there is significant institutional variation, and we assert a need to address persistence and engagement at the institutional level and throughout higher education. Finally, our findings highlight the potential of making the study of engineering more attractive to qualified students. Our findings suggest that a two‐pronged approach holds the greatest potential for increasing the number of students graduating with engineering degrees: identify programming that retains the students who come to college committed to an engineering major, and develop programming and policies that allow other students to migrate in. There is already considerable discourse on persistence, so our findings suggest that more research focus is needed on the pathways into engineering, including pathways from other majors.     

The Influence of Computer‐based Model's Race and Gender on Female Students' Attitudes and Beliefs Towards Engineering

Background This study explored the use of interface agents, anthropomorphic, 3D‐animated computer characters that provide teaching or mentoring within a computer‐based learning environment, to encourage young Black and White women to pursue careers in engineering. Purpose (Hypothesis ) We hypothesized that computer‐based models that matched young women in terms of their race and gender would be the most effective in positively influencing their interest, self‐efficacy, and stereotypes about engineering. Design/ Method Eighty African American undergraduate female students in Experiment 1, and 39 White undergraduate female students in Experiment 2 interacted with a computer‐based agent that provided a narrative designed to encourage them to pursue engineering careers. The study employed a 2 × 2 between subjects factorial design (agent gender: male vs. female and agent race: Black vs. White). Results Across both studies we found that race and gender influenced the effectiveness of the agent for several key outcome measures. Computer‐based agents who matched the participants with respect to race and gender tended to be the most effective in improving the women's responses to engineering‐related fields. Nevertheless, the White male agent was actually significantly more influential than the White female agent for female Black participants. Conclusions Personalizing interface agent characteristics to match the target population can increase the effectiveness of a persuasive message to encourage young women to pursue engineering. Such an approach may contribute to the growth and inclusiveness of fields such as engineering.     

A Longitudinal Study of Engineering Student Performance and Retention. III. Gender Differences in Student Performance and Attitudes

In a continuing study under way at North Carolina State University, a cohort of students took five chemical engineering courses taught by the same instructor in five consecutive semesters. This report examines gender differences in the students' academic performance, persistence in chemical engineering, and attitudes toward their education and themselves. The women in the study on average entered chemical engineering with credentials equal to or better than those of the men, but exhibited an erosion relative to the men in both academic performance and confidence as they progressed through the curriculum. Possible causes of the observed disparities are suggested and remedial measures are proposed.     

Considering Context: A Study of First‐Year Engineering Students

High‐quality engineering design requires an understanding of how the resulting engineered artifact interacts with society, the natural environment, and other aspects of context. This study examines how first‐year engineering undergraduates approached two engineering design tasks. We focused on how much students considered contextual factors during problem‐scoping, a critical part of the design process. As part of a larger, longitudinal study, we collected data from 160 students at four U.S. institutions. Students varied in their consideration of each design task's context, and women's responses were more likely to be context‐oriented than men's. Overall, context‐orientation was positively correlated between the two design tasks, despite differences in data collection and analysis. Having found that beginning engineering students, particularly women, are sensitive to important contextual factors, we suggest that efforts to broaden participation in engineering should consider legitimizing and fostering context‐oriented approaches to engineering earlier in the curriculum.     

Participation of women in software engineering publications

To the best of our knowledge, no works analyzing the participation of women as authors and editors in software engineering research publications currently exist. We have therefore followed a well-defined procedure in order to conduct an empirical study of female participation in 12 leading software engineering journals. We have analyzed the gender of the authors, editorial board members, associate editors and editors-in-chief over a two-year period in order to analyze, on the one hand, the rate of participation of women as authors and as editors in software engineering publications, and on the other, whether women are underrepresented. We have also analyzed the female distribution of authors and editors according to the geographical location of their institutions. This was done by first selecting the journals to be used as the population for data collection which then allowed us to identify female authors of papers and female editors, including the country in which their institutions are located. This eventually led to an analysis of female participation in order to understand representation rates. We analyzed 3,546 authors of 1,266 papers in 61 different countries, and 363 members of editorial boards in 30 different countries. The results of this analysis provide quantitative data concerning the participation of women as authors and editors in major software engineering journals including their distribution per country, in which important differences have been found. The results obtained were first used to compare the participation of women as authors and editors and were then used to carry out a series of simulations in order to be able to statistically confirm whether women are underrepresented. The study shows, amongst other things, that women are not underrepresented as editorial boards members and as editors-in-chief of the journals studied, although their representation as editors-in-chief is low.     

Comparing the Undergraduate Experience of Engineers to All Other Majors: Significant Differences are Programmatic

Background The authors partnered with the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) to examine how persistence within the engineering major and engagement of undergraduate students in engineering compare to other majors. Purpose (Hypothesis ) We explored three research questions: How do engineering students rate their college engagement compared to students in other majors? How do engineering persisters, non‐persisters, and migrators compare in terms of collegiate engagement, time on task, and enriching educational experiences? What college engagement factors predict persistence in engineering? Design /Method Data are from nearly 12,000 students who completed the NSSE survey in their first and senior years as undergraduates. Surveys were analyzed using ANOVA and Chi‐square calculations to determine whether differences emerged in three dimensions of student engagement based on students' self‐reported major. Due to the large sample, effect size was used to determine statistical significance. Binary logistic regression was used to identify factors that predict persistence among first year students and seniors in engineering. Results Results show that engineering majors are similar to non‐engineering majors on most variables. However, engineering majors reported significantly higher gains in practical competence and higher order thinking, but the lowest means on reflective learning and gains in general education. Engineering majors reported significantly more time preparing for class and less time participating in educationally enriching experiences. Conclusions We conclude that different educational outcomes between majors are the result of programmatic differences. The packed engineering curriculum requires students to make trade‐offs between gaining practical/marketable skills and participating in educationally enriching activities. We question this trade‐off and suggest alternative approaches.     

Gender Differences in Elements of the Undergraduate Experience that Influence Satisfaction with the Engineering Major and the Intent to Pursue Engineering as a Career

Background Groups within and outside of educational institutions are interested in factors that influence satisfaction among students enrolled in the engineering major as well as elements within the college environment that shape students' intentions to work in engineering in the future and whether these elements differ by gender. Purpose (Hypothesis ) This study identified gender differences on indicators of the undergraduate experience including faculty‐related and student‐related variables as well as measures of satisfaction with the institutional environment that are related to satisfaction with the engineering major and intent to pursue a career in engineering ten years from now. Design /Method The mixed methods approach used for this investigation involved nine institutions with engineering undergraduate degree programs. An online questionnaire was administered to undergraduate students enrolled in engineering. Qualitative data was collected through focus group interviews with students at each of the nine participating institutions. Results Findings reveal that satisfaction with the engineering major does not translate directly to pursuing a career in engineering, particularly among women. In terms of elements of the undergraduate experience, some types of interactions with faculty and peers have both short‐ and long‐term impacts on interest in engineering as a major and as a career. Conclusions Creating learning environments that emphasize care and respect for students as well as overseeing student interaction during group work can make a difference in students' satisfaction in the engineering major and in interest in engineering as a career, particularly for women.     

Biases in Interpersonal Communication: How Engineering Students Perceive Gender Typical Speech Acts in Teamwork

This research investigates differences in how engineering and non‐engineering men and women perceive common speech acts in team settings. Participants completed surveys asking them to rate the speakers of three male typical and three female typical speech acts. Male engineering students were significantly harsher than other groups on female typical speech acts in which the speaker conceded weaknesses, even if this concession was for strategic purposes such as trying to help another teammate “save face.” This bias against female typical speech was consistent regardless of the speaker's gender, suggesting that students were reacting to speech patterns rather than to biological gender. These findings provide hope that women may be able to help manage perceptions of their everyday team interactions by avoiding statements that imply weaknesses, even if such speech is normal in other situations.     

疲劳裂纹扩展预测模型及其应用

在分析了灰色预测方法和支持向量机各自的优缺点基础上,提出了将二者相结合的一种新的预测模型———灰色支持向量机裂纹扩展预测模型.新模型发挥了灰色预测方法中"累加生成"的优点,弱化了原始序列中随机扰动因素的影响,增强了数据的规律性,同时避免了灰色预测方法及模型存在的理论缺陷.工程实例表明,文章所提出的裂纹扩展预测模型较传统的GM(1,1)模型、等维GM(1,1)模型精度都有所提高,为预测疲劳裂纹扩展提供了一种新的方法.     

The Use of Discriminant Analysis to Investigate the Influence of Non‐Cognitive Factors on Engineering School Persistence

This study identified post‐enrollment attitudes and perceptions that influence students' decisions to remain in an engineering curriculum. Non‐cognitive factors including expectations and perception of the engineering profession, assessment of personal attributes, and subject‐matter confidence were investigated. Discriminant analysis functions were developed to distinguish among three mutually exclusive groups: those who remained in the engineering school, those who remained at the university in a different school, and those who left the university altogether. Self‐reported confidence in college‐level math/science ability and the belief that an engineering degree enhances career security at a respectable salary were found to be significant predictors of both short‐term and long‐term persistence in engineering.     

Factors Associated With Persistence in Science and Engineering Majors: An Exploratory Study Using Classification Trees and Random Forests

Many students who start college intending to major in science or engineering do not graduate, or decide to switch to a non‐science major. We used the recently developed statistical method of random forests to obtain a new perspective of variables that are associated with persistence to a science or engineering degree. We describe classification trees and random forests and contrast the results from these methods with results from the more commonly used method of logistic regression. Among the variables available in Arizona State University data, high school and freshman year GPAs have highest importance for predicting persistence; other variables such as number of science and engineering courses taken freshman year are important for subgroups of the student population. The method used in this study could be employed in other settings to identify faculty practices, teaching methods, and other factors that are associated with high persistence to a degree.     

Stereotype Threat and Women's Performance in Engineering

Recent research has demonstrated that stereotype threat—the concern that others will judge one negatively due to a stereotype that exists about one's group—interferes with women's performance on standardized math and engineering exams. In the current research we find that when a shortened version of the Fundamental of Engineering Exam is described as a test that is diagnostic of ability (i.e., when stereotype threat is high) women perform worse than men on the test. When stereotype threat is reduced, however (by characterizing the test as non‐diagnostic or as not producing gender differences), women do just as well as men. The implication of these results for improving the engineering education environment is discussed.     

Retention and Performance of Male and Female Engineering Students: An Examination of Academic and Environmental Variables

In the present article, we conducted an exploratory study of student persistence and performance in a key course in the engineering sequence (i.e., Statics). At issue was whether certain characteristics of students (i.e., their gender, SAT-math scores, GPA) and institutions (i.e., class size, percentage of female enrollment, gender of instructor) would be associated with higher levels of persistence and performance. Students from 48 sections of Statics from 17 institutions were included in the study (N = 4,993 males and 1,123 females). Within-gender analyses showed that the primary factors associated with persistence were GPAs and SAT-math scores. Between-gender analyses revealed that the size and direction of the gender gap in persistence varied across institutions. Factors associated with these variations included the selectivity of the institution and the relative level of female persistence.     

Gender stereotypes and superior conformity of the self in a sample of cyclists

In the field of driving, people tend to think they are more competent and more cautious than others. This is the superior conformity of the self (SCS). Our main hypothesis was that, among cyclists, women would show a higher SCS on cautiousness, though men would show a higher SCS concerning competence. 1799 cyclists provided a self-assessment of their own cautiousness and of other people's cautiousness. The same procedure was used for competence. Consistent with the hypothesis, the SCS was gender-specific: it was more prominent for women concerning cautiousness and more prominent for men concerning competence. These results could explain why people tend to ignore the safety campaigns. They also indicate the importance of adapting messages concerning safety measures to gender.     

Energy metabolism,body composition,and urea generation rate in hemodialysis patients

Hemodialysis (HD) adequacy is currently assessed using normalized urea clearance (Kt/V), although scaling based on Watson volume (V) may disadvantage women and men with low body weight. Alternative scaling factors such as resting energy expenditure and high metabolic rate organ mass have been suggested. The relationship between such factors and uremic toxin generation has not been established. We aimed to study the relationship between body size, energy metabolism, and urea generation rate. A cross‐sectional cohort of 166 HD patients was studied. Anthropometric measurements were carried on all. Resting energy expenditure was measured by indirect calorimetry, fat‐free mass by bio‐impedance and total energy expenditure by combining resting energy expenditure with a questionnaire‐derived physical activity data. High metabolic rate organ mass was calculated using a published equation and urea generation rate using formal urea kinetic modeling. Metabolic factors including resting energy expenditure, total energy expenditure and fat‐free mass correlated better with urea generation rate than did Watson volume. Total energy expenditure and fat‐free mass (but not Watson Volume) were independent predictors of urea generation rate, the model explaining 42% of its variation. Small women (<mean V) had a significantly higher urea generation rate per kg than women with higher V. Similarly urea generation rate normalized to fat‐free mass was significantly greater in small women than in all others (significant only in comparison to larger men). Exercise‐related energy expenditure correlated significantly with urea generation rate. Energy metabolism, body composition and physical activity play important roles in small solute uremic toxin generation in HD patients and hence may impact on minimum dialysis requirements. Small women generate relatively more small solute toxins than other groups and thus may have a higher relative need for dialysis.     

Why Do Students Choose Engineering? A Qualitative,Longitudinal Investigation of Students' Motivational Values

Background Recently published reports call for an increase in the number of engineering graduates and suggest appropriate characteristics that these graduates should embody. Accomplishing such change first requires understanding why students choose to pursue engineering degrees. Purpose (Hypothesis ) Framed in motivation theory, our purpose was to better understand how students choose engineering by answering the question: How do engineering students' engineering‐related value beliefs contribute to their choices to engage and persist in earning engineering degrees? Design /Method This research uses Eccles' expectancy‐value theory in a qualitative, longitudinal examination of undergraduate students' choices to enroll and persist in engineering majors. In particular, the focus of this work is Eccles' subjective task value (STV) construct, which incorporates the personal importance an individual assigns to engaging in an activity. Using a multiple case study method approach, participants included eleven students (five men and six women) at a U.S. technical school. Results Results demonstrate that different patterns exist in the types of value or personal importance that participants assign to earning an engineering degree. Moreover, a primary differentiating feature of these patterns is whether or not participants choose engineering because it is consistent with their personal identity or sense of self. Conclusions We conclude that values are very important in students' choices to become engineers. To increase persistence rates we must focus on values, especially by helping students connect their personal identities to engineering identities.