Social systems that marginalize the psychological and organizational aspects of information technology

This polemical paper is concerned with identifying the factors which serve to marginalize the psychological and organizational aspects of the development, implementation and use of information technology. Five sets of factors are delineated, those associated with: end-users; suppliers, 'experts' and the development process; management and organizations; research and development; and education and understanding. The analysis points to the presence of a complex, mutually reinforcing set of social systems acting to marginalize psychological and organizational concerns, and helps explain the massive difficulties in achieving change. It also reveals that psychological and organizational expertise tends to be supply-pushed rather than demand-pulled into the community. This may help explain why many working in this field fail to practise the user-centred approaches that we preach.     

Social and psychological aspects of computer-aided design systems

Abstract

A study was performed among design employees in three large companies to investigate the psychosocial effects of computer-aided design (CAD) work. The study included all technical employees of the departments selected, of whom about two-thirds worked with CAD systems. The results demonstrate that 90% of the CAD users have a positive attitude to CAD-work. No significant differences were found between CAD users and non-CAD users in terms of work load, autonomy, social support, job satisfaction, personal development, or degree of co-operation. Within the group of CAD users, those spending a larger number of weekly working hours with the CAD system reported lower work complexity, lower autonomy of work methods, and less job satisfaction. CAD users with a relatively higher number of years of CAD experience reported a greater work load, fewer CAD difficulties, and lower autonomy of work methods. Among draftspersons and designers, there were no significant differences in work activities between CAD users and non-CAD users.     

Social and psychological aspects of computer-aided design systems

A study was performed among design employees in three large companies to investigate the psychosocial effects of computer-aided design (CAD) work. The study included all technical employees of the departments selected, of whom about two-thirds worked with CAD systems. The results demonstrate that 90% of the CAD users have a positive attitude to CAD-work. No significant differences were found between CAD users and non-CAD users in terms of work load, autonomy, social support, job satisfaction, personal development, or degree of co-operation. Within the group of CAD users, those spending a larger number of weekly working hours with the CAD system reported lower work complexity, lower autonomy of work methods, and less job satisfaction. CAD users with a relatively higher number of years of CAD experience reported a greater work load, fewer CAD difficulties, and lower autonomy of work methods. Among draftspersons and designers, there were no significant differences in work activities between CAD users and non-CAD users.     

The design of information technology planning systems for varying organizational contexts

The conduct of IT planning processes has been a dominant managerial concern in organizations. Yet, current IT planning research offers little guidance on the types of planning actions and behaviour that are appropriate to organizational contexts. The motivation of this paper is to extend the existing literature by addressing the following major question: How should organizations design IT planning systems to manage the conduct of their IT planning processes? The paper seeks to address this question by (i) identifying key organizational forces that affect the IT planning processes, (ii) articulating some of the key dimensions of IT planning systems and (iii) elaborating upon propositions for linking designs of IT planning systems with organizational context. The concepts and the propositions are expected to provide significant guidance for further research and practice.     

The organizational fit of information systems

Abstract. One can expect that the fit, match or congruence between an information system and its organizational context will be of increasing importance as information systems become more and more integral parts of organizations. Existing IS research has largely neglected the theoretical analysis of the concept 'fit', however, even though it has been widely used in a 'pre-theoretical' sense. The analysis of the concept of 'organizational fit of an information system' put forward in this article is essentially based on the recent analysis of 'fit' in contingency theory, suggesting three interpretations for the concept: a selection approach, an interaction approach and a systems approach. A review of the IS literature on the organizational fit of information systems indicates a lack of any cumulative tradition in existing empirical contingency research into information systems and dominance of the selection approach. Because of the two limitations, this paper regards any definite assessment of the potential prospects of contingency research into information systems as overhasty and proposes a framework for future research into the situation dependence and organizational fit of information systems which integrates contingency research into information systems, contingency research into IS impacts and contingency research into the IS adoption (development/implementation) process.     

Supporting organizational relations through information technology in innovative organizational forms

The paper analyses some of the main organizational changes which have emerged in the last few years as an answer to the new economic environment calling for global, time-based competition: reduction of hierarchy levels, elimination of slack resources, enlargement of decisional autonomy of organizational units/offices and of lateral communication and coordination mechanisms. The paper affirms a new role of information technology (IT) connected to these organizational transformations. Three main areas for new IT support are recognised: (i) facilities for middle manager decisions; (ii) tools for improving the decisional autonomy of organizational units; and (iii) supports to lateral mechanisms of communication and coordination. For analysing and identifying these new areas of support, a new method of organizational analysis is proposed: the relational method of organizational analysis. This new multidimensional method and perspective overcomes difficulties deriving from the reductionism of the existing methods, looking only to the ‘economic’, ‘formal’ or ‘interpersonal’ components of the relation. Instead the proposed relational method is able to analyse simultaneously the several dimensions of a relation and to discover and to explain the new role of IT in innovative firms.     

Cultural analysis of the organizational consequences of information technology

For over 30 years, the literature on organizations has carried accounts of the potential for information technology to transform organizational structures and processes. Despite this enduring interest in the relationship between information technology and organizations, the variety of actual consequences for organizations has not been satisfactorily explained. In this paper, we propose the use of cultural analysis to understand the organizational consequences of information technology. Analyses that use the construct of culture meet two important requisites for understanding and resolving the contradictory empirical findings. First, cultural analysis emphasizes the importance of socially constructed meanings and their relationship to information technology's material properties. From this perspective, technology's social consequences are largely indeterminate because of the variety of meanings that technology can assume. Cultural analysis thus removes the temptation to consider information technology as an autonomous determinant of organizational form and process. Second, cultural analysis can address information technology's role in both the persistence and the transformation of organizations. Information technology can help preserve institutionalized practices in an organization, and it can operate as a catalyst for change. Because cultural analysis encompasses these opposing organizational processes, it helps to explain the diversity of outcomes experienced after information technology is implemented.     

Changing perspectives on the organizational consequences of information technology

Early predictions of the impact of computers on organizations ranged from 'human - computer symbiosis' to automation and the collapse of jobs. The findings from impact research show that there was evidence for all predictions that were made. This demonstrated that the technology is very flexible and can be deployed to facilitate many different organizational outcomes. However, more recent research shows that the design process—despite significant progress in the adoption of user-centred methods—remains technocentric and organizational outcomes are often unplanned and unwanted. The paper concludes that current predictions about the development of virtual organizations are likely to be over simplistic and that the usage of methods to assess organizational options and design socio-technical systems are necessary if emerging forms of technology are to be effectively deployed.     

Changing perspectives on the organizational consequences of information technology

Early predictions of the impact of computers on organizations ranged from 'human - computer symbiosis' to automation and the collapse of jobs. The findings from impact research show that there was evidence for all predictions that were made. This demonstrated that the technology is very flexible and can be deployed to facilitate many different organizational outcomes. However, more recent research shows that the design processdespite significant progress in the adoption of user-centred methodsremains technocentric and organizational outcomes are often unplanned and unwanted. The paper concludes that current predictions about the development of virtual organizations are likely to be over simplistic and that the usage of methods to assess organizational options and design socio-technical systems are necessary if emerging forms of technology are to be effectively deployed.     

Human and organizational issues in information systems development

Abstract

The paper describes the first phase of a project funded in the UK by the Department of Trade and Industry and the Science and Engineering Research Council (Project I ED 1249). The paper reviews a number of systems development methods, examines the extent to which they incorporate consideration of a set of relevant human and organizational issues, and describes the findings of an exploratory study of the ways in which systems analysts work, including their use of methods.     

Human and organizational issues in information systems development

The paper describes the first phase of a project funded in the UK by the Department of Trade and Industry and the Science and Engineering Research Council (Project I ED 1249). The paper reviews a number of systems development methods, examines the extent to which they incorporate consideration of a set of relevant human and organizational issues, and describes the findings of an exploratory study of the ways in which systems analysts work, including their use of methods.     

The interaction between the use of information technology and organizational culture

Abstract

The interaction between the use of information technology, (IT) in organizations and that organization's culture is examined. The interaction is considered from the early stages of specification through to the regular use of the systems. The changes in the technological artefacts which result from the use of IT are discussed. Some suggestions about control of the interaction are made.     

The interaction between the use of information technology and organizational culture

The interaction between the use of information technology, (IT) in organizations and that organization's culture is examined. The interaction is considered from the early stages of specification through to the regular use of the systems. The changes in the technological artefacts which result from the use of IT are discussed. Some suggestions about control of the interaction are made.     

Treasury management information systems and the contribution of information technology

Treasury management is a relatively new function in large corporations. It is a data-dependent activity requiring information systems support. Thus, many It-based products are available to treasurers. An exploratory study has revealed that corporate treasurers are concerned with five core activities in which they exploit a rich set of information sources. They appear to rely on personal and informal information processes as much as use more formal systems and It products. Paradoxically, most computer systems have focussed on external data collection where treasurers generally have developed their own effective intelligence networks. Conversely, internal data collection, which appears to be problematic in most corporations, so far has benefitted little from It. Treasurers' usage of It has been mainly confined to small, local or personal systems. These have been developed or acquired with scant involvement of in-house Mis departments. Better understanding of treasury managers' work and preferences therefore is a prerequisite for successful treasury Mis.     

Human factors in information technology: The socio-organisational aspects of expert systems design

This paper looks beyond the mostly technical and business issues that currently inform the design of knowledge-based systems (e.g., expert systems) to point out that there is also a social and organisational (a socio-organisational) dimension to the issues affecting the design decisions of expert systems and other information technologies. It argues that whilst technical and business issues are considered before the design of Expert Systems, that socio-organisational issues determine the acceptance and long-run utility of the technology after it has been implemented. It shows how four issues within the organisation can affect the design or the after-effects of the design and implementation of the technology. It also shows how the four issues can be considered within the structured phases of expert system development.     

The significance of context in information systems and organizational change

This paper argues that it is of crucial importance that information systems (IS) research and practice associates technology innovation with the context within which it is embedded. It identifies three principles to be followed in order to address the contextual processes involved in IS implementation: first, technology innovation should be considered in relation to socio‐organizational change; second, analysis should consider not only the local organizational, but also the national and international context; and third, analysis should consider both the technical/rational decisions and actions involved in the innovation process and the cultural, social and cognitive forces of such a process. These principles are demonstrated with the analysis of a case study of organizational reform in Cyprus.     

Tools to incorporate some psychological and organizational issues during the development of computer-based systems

The organization, findings and outcomes of a joint industrial/academic project are described. The principal goal of the project was to develop and test some tools through which people involved in system development can incorporate explicit consideration of certain key psychological and organizational issues. Five tools developed for this purpose are outlined. These are concerned with the design of work organization, job design, the allocation of tasks between humans and computers, usability and task analysis. The use of the tools is described in a ‘live’ system development project in a large company. The authors briefly review the extent to which these tools meet a set of pre-specified requirements, compare their approach with those of Mumford (1986) and Lim et al. (1992), and make explicit what claims they are making of these tools.