Content and representation effects with reasoning tasks in PROLOG form

Two experiments were carried out to examine human reasoning performance in the context of the logic programming language PROLOG. Two factors, 'content' (familiar versus unfamiliar) and 'representation' (diagrammatic versus PROLOG-like list) were investigated. Subjects answered questions about hierarchical relationships in each condition. A significant interaction was obtained in both experiments, subjects making fewer errors in the familiar-diagram and unfamiliar-list conditions than in the familiar-list and unfamiliar-diagram conditions.

It is hypothesized that a lower percentage of correct responses was given in familiar-list and unfamiliar-diagram conditions because the representation of information prevented successful use of an appropriate reasoning strategy. Working memory limitations provide a basis for understanding constraints on reasoning strategies for solving task questions. These strategies may involve either a serial or a spatial solution process. One strategy may require a larger working memory load than another, depending on the representation and content of the task information. Implications for PROLOG programming instruction are discussed.     

USING META-PROGRAMMING,CONSTRAINT LOGIC PROGRAMMING AND APPROXIMATE REASONING FOR EXPERT SYSTEMS DESIGN

Abstract

This paper presents an enhancement of the CARESS system—A Constraint Approximative Reasoning System Support—introduced in (Popescu and Roventa, 1994). CARESS is an experimental system with primarily two objectives:

(1)knowledge representation and manipulation techniques and to implement them in PROLOG III, and

(2) to develop a knowledge programming environment for building expert systems. We discuss here the use of meta-programming, constraint logic programming and approximate reasoning for the design of expert systems

It has already been proven that meta-programming and logic programming are powerful techniques for expert system design. Fuzzy logic can be used to model one kind of uncertainty. Constraint logic programming is useful for dealing with the constraints given by operations using fuzzy sets.     

Exploring the No-Function-In-Structure principle

Abstract

Although much of past work in AI has focused on compiled knowledge systems, recent research shows renewed interest and advanced efforts both in model-based reasoning and in the integration of this deep knowledge with compiled problem solving structures. Device-based reasoning can only be as good as the model used; if the needed knowledge, correct detail, or proper theoretical background is not accessible, performance deteriorates. Much of the work on model-based reasoning references the ‘no-function-in-structure’ principle, which was introduced by de Kleer and Brown. Although they were well motivated in establishing the guideline, this paper explores the applicability and workability of the concept as a universal principle for model representation. This paper first describes the principle, its intent and the concerns it addresses. It then questions the feasibility and the practicality of the principle as a universal guideline for model representation.     

Age differences in the performance of information retrieval tasks

In two experiments younger (18-25 years) and older (60-70 years) participants performed an information retrieval task in which they searched for the answers to questions in a hierarchical menu structure. Participants' movement speed, spatial ability, spatial memory, working memory capacity and reasoning speed were measured. Results showed older participants to be slower than younger participants on overall latencies on the information retrieval task. This slowing increases with each consecutive step in the menu structure. Regression analysis showed that movement speed, reasoning speed and spatial ability predicted the overall latencies accurately. Modelling the consecutive steps showed that latencies on the first selection are predicted by movement speed and reasoning speed. Memory and spatial measures are predictors for latencies on steps further into the menu structure only. This finding is consistent with increased slowing of older participants for later selections and suggests that deep menu structures are less suited for older users.     

An analogue and propositional hybrid model for the perception of computer generated graphical images

Abstract

This research investigated two alternative models, analogue and propositional, which describe how three-dimensional (3-D) graphical images are represented and stored in human memory. In order to differentiate between the two models, three separate experiments were performed using a variation of the Shepard-Metzler mental rotation paradigm (Shepard and Metzler 1971). For each experiment, the effects of three independent variables on the performance of a ‘mental rotation’ task were examined: (a) three levels of figure complexity, ( b) three axes of rotation and (c) four angles of rotation. The subjects' task was to compare specific angle, axis or depth versus picture plane rotations for pairs (rotated and non-rotated versions) of 3-D graphic figures displayed on a CRT. The results indicated that response times varied depending on level of figure complexity, axis or angle of rotation. A new hybrid model integrating components of both the analogue and propositional positions is proposed to explain the reaction time data. In this model, analogue processes occur when processing requirements for cognitive tasks are low, whereas propositional processes occur when processing requirements are high. Implications of the results for the internal representation of 3-D images in human memory and for the design of graphic work stations are discussed.     

The AGARD grammatical reasoning task: a defect and proposed solutions

Abstract

The grammatical reasoning task of the AGARD STRES Battery is examined. It appears that a major defect in the task exists and might render the interpretation of the results ambiguous. Two possible solutions are outlined.     

Graphical presentation of boolean expressions in a database query language: design notes and an ergonomic evaluation

Abstract

A new query language designed to improve ease-of-use and ease-of-learning for ‘naive’ users is presented. Its main interest is to avoid the explicit use of boolean operators for set operations by pointing on Venn diagrams. A human factors comparison with a more traditional design has been performed, using a query writing task. Results show that graphic representation of selected subsets allows less error-prone queries in a single relation database.     

Boundary penalty techniques

We examine techniques for enforcing Dirichlet boundary data in finite element solution of boundary-value problems. The common programming strategy of adding a large number to certain diagonal entries and scaling the right-side is compared with penalty methods. By selectively underintegrating the continuous penalty formulation and selecting the penalty parameter ε^?1 optimally as a function of mesh size h we deduce the ‘large number’ strategy and hence show that the optimal rate is preserved. Numerical experiments to study the rates for continuous penalty, underintegrated penalty and ‘large number’ strategies corroborate the argument.     

Systems of representation: a pedagogical model for design education in the information age

Abstract

The course SDR: Sistemas de Representación(Systems of Representation), is the last stage of a line of work which has the objective of integrating information technologies in the education of architecture in a meaningful way. A distinctive mark of this pedagogic approach has been to look upon computer technology as an opportunity to rethink the methods, contents and goals of architecturaleducation,in thelight of contemporary culture.

The course is structured in six themes, each one standing for a ‘system of representation’: ‘text’, ‘figure’, ‘object’, ‘image’, ‘space’ and ‘light’. Within every system, a variety of issues dealing with the concept of ‘representation’ are addressed in an interdisciplinary manner. It is a compulsory course lasting three semesters, in the second and third year of a five-year architectural program. It has been offered since the academic year 1999/2000.     

CAUSAL BAYESIAN REASONING IN MEDICINE

Abstract

We propose a knowledge representation architecture organized in three levels—a causal network (containing the domain knowledge), medical strategies and causal reasoning—and expose the fundamentals of a mathematical model for computing probaility through the application of Bayes' theorem in a causal network.     

Temporal,spatial, and constraint handling in the Conceptual Programming environment,CP

Abstract

The Conceptual Programming environment, CP, being developed at New Mexico State University (NMSU), is a complete knowledge representation programming environment for use with both dynamic, open-world, problem solving (weak) applications and static, closed-world, scientific analysis (strong) applications. CP is based upon a graphical methodology of visualization derived from John Sowa's conceptual graph theory. In this paper, we describe the formal basis for the internal CP representation and explain the mechanisms for the operators relating to the processing of time, space and constraints within the CP environment. The CP environment is a ‘working’ representation system, and makes a good foundation for suitable applications     

Effects of loud noise and signal probability on visual vigilance

Abstract

The combined effects of training and loud (95 dBC) white noise were investigated in a visual version of the Bakan vigilance task. Two signal probabilities, high (p=0·02) and low (p=0·), were factorially combined to give the following training/test combinations: high/high, high/low, low/high and low/low. While signal detection was sensitive to task length only, response times were sensitive to both training and noise level. Noise tended to lengthen response times for those people trained in, and then receiving, the low-probability schedule and this effect increased over time. The memory component of the task (recall of pre-signal digits) was independently sensitive to both noise and signal probability.

The results imply that it is the high memory component of the task which allows a variety of strategies to be employed in order to perform the task. The measures do not allow us to differentiate performance effects due to changes in efficiency from those due to changes in strategy.     

Psychological evaluation and design of work tasks: two examples

Abstract

Practical experience with flexible production automation has provoked rising demands for human oriented job design. Prospective evaluation of work tasks based on status-quo analyses with the psychological instrument VERA, developed for the assessment of the available scope of action in fulfilling the task, has led to design proposals concerning technical and organizational aspects as well as questions of training and retraining. Procedure and results are shown by presenting two case studies dealing with a small flexible manufacturing system and a planned ‘production island’.     

Mental Work-load as a Function of Demand,Capacity, Strategy and Skill

Abstract

An attempt is made to outline a conceptual framework in which to view the problems of defining and measuring mental work-load. This is treated in terms of the demands made by tasks, the capacities the subject brings to meet these demands, and the strategies he uses to relate the first to the second. Two types of demand are distinguished: the amount of data to be handled at a particular moment, and the amount to be dealt with during a particular period of time. Each type is considered in relation to the main central functions of perception, decision and choice, phasing and coordination of action, memory, and motivation. Capacity, and the effects of various factors upon it, are considered in relation to concepts of signal-to-noise ratio in the central nervous system. Three main types of strategy are outlined: coding and programming, methods of search, and balancing conflicting factors such as speed and accuracy or errors of omission and commission. Skill is discussed in terms of efficiency of strategy and a model is proposed to account for the attainment of skill with experience. Two basic approaches to the measurement of work-load are compared: the synthetic, in which the load imposed by the task as a whole is calculated from the loads imposed by its components; and the analytic, in which the task is studied as a whole, and components are analysed from the whole performance. Chronic stress and emotion are briefly discussed as long-term factors liable to affect work-load.     

Discovering rules to design newspapers: An inductive constraint logic programming approach

Inductive logic programming combines both machine learning and logic programming techniques. ILP uses first-order predicate logic restricted to Horn clauses as an underlying language. Thus, programs induced by an ILP system inherit the classical limitations of PROLOG programs. Constraint logic programming avoids some of the limitations of logic programming, and so ILP aims to induce programs that employ this paradigm. Current ILP systems that induce constrained logic programs extend systems based on the normal semantics ofILP. In this article we introduce IC-Log, a new system that induces constrained logic programs and relies on an extension ofa nonmonotonic semantics-based system. We then present an application of IC-Log in the field ofcomputer-aided publishing.     

Industrial Inspection Efficiency and the Probability of a Defect Occurring

Abstract

Following Colquhouu's more general result that in a vigilance task probability rather than frequency of occurrence determines an operator's efficiency, the effect of ‘ probability ’ has been tested on the shop floor for probabilities in the range 0·01 to 0·05 for paced and unpaced inspection.

A ‘ probability ’ effect was found for the ‘ unpaced condition ’. Raising the probability increased the level of detection of defects significantly

The practical and theoretical implications of the current study are discussed: particularly relating the relevance of laboratory studies to practical situations.     

Biomechanical analysis of upper limb during the use of touch screen: motion strategies identification

Abstract

Nowadays touch technology is growing and developers try to make it ever more intuitive and easier to use. This present work focused on the upper limb joint coordination during the achievement of puzzles on touch screen. A 5-inch and 10-inch devices were used to perform 9 and 16 pieces puzzles dragged with digits. The conclusions showed an increase in joint solicitation with the number of piece and the touch screen size. Moreover, three interactions strategies proved to be an evidence: the ‘wrist strategy’ preferentially implying wrist flexion/extension, the ‘elbow strategy’ preferentially implying the elbow flexion/extension and the ‘neutral strategy’ mobilising equally the two joints. From an ergonomic point of view, the data about how the upper limb segments are mobilised while interacting with the screen could be relevant to increase the adaptability of the devices to the user, including users with motor impairments.

Practitioner Summary: Information about the biomechanical organisation of movement during interaction with touch devices appears relevant in order to develop applications adapted to the motor capacities of users. From the analysis of joint angles when performing several times a puzzle with healthy subjects, three motor strategies were highlighted.