Study of microcellular foaming of polystyrene aided with 45 kHz of ultrasound waves energy

ABSTRACT

In the microcellular foam plastic processing, cellular formation stage was being an essential stage since the nucleation and growth of the cell take place within. Based on classical nucleation theory, diminution of the free energy for nucleation, exponentially lead to an increase in the nucleation rate. This can be done by increasing the super-saturation level which achieved by heating the gas-saturated polymer. Hence, the advance is taken out by utilizing the ultrasound wave simultaneously with heating for foaming Polystyrene-scCO₂, which, not only to keep the super-saturation degree but also reduce the nucleation barrier. In this work, foaming was conducted under 45 kHz of ultrasound and varying the foaming temperature after saturating polystyrene with scCO₂. The results demonstrate, that foaming under ultrasound, the expansion ratio attained up to 1.5 fold, increase along with the heating temperature. Higher cell densities obtained with ultrasound applied at 50°C, however only slight difference can be seen, which about 10¹⁰–10¹¹ cell/cm³. From the cell size distribution results, cell distributed around 0.5–3.5 µm, with or without ultrasound applied for 60 and 70°C, Meanwhile at 50°C of foaming, the lowest cell size obtained with the aid of ultrasound in the range of 0.3–2.4 µm.     

Effects of firing temperature on the microstructures and properties of porous mullite ceramics prepared by foam-gelcasting

Porous mullite ceramics were prepared at 1300–1600°C for 2?h via a foam-gelcasting route using industrial-grade mullite powders as the main raw material, Isobam 104 as the dispersing and gelling agent, triethanolamine lauryl sulphate as the foaming agent and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose as the foam stabilising agent. The effects of firing temperature on the sintering behaviour of green samples as well as microstructures and properties of final porous mullite products were investigated. With increasing the temperature from 1300 to 1600°C, linear shrinkage and bulk density values of fired samples increased, whereas their porosity decreased. Mechanical strength and thermal conductivity values of fired samples decreased with increasing their porosities. Even at a porosity level as high as 79.4%, compressive and flexural strengths of fired samples (with average pore size of 314?μm) remained as high as 9.0 and 3.7?MPa, respectively, and their thermal conductivity (at 200°C) remained as low as 0.21?W?(m^?1?K^?1).     

Preparation and characterization of porous mullite ceramics via foam-gelcasting

Porous mullite ceramics were prepared via foam-gelcasting using industrial grade mullite powder as the main raw materials, Isobam-104 as the dispersing and gelling agent, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose as the foam stabilizing agent, and triethanolamine lauryl sulfate as the foaming agent. The effects of processing parameters such as type and amount of additive, solid loading level and gelling temperature on rheological properties and gelling behaviors of the slurries were investigated. The green samples after drying at 100 °C for 24 h were fired at 1600 °C for 2 h, and the microstructures and properties of the resultant porous ceramic samples were characterized. Based on the results, the effects of foaming agent on the porosity level, pore structure and size and mechanical properties of the as-prepared porous mullite ceramics were examined. Porosity levels and pore sizes of the as-prepared samples increased with increasing the foaming agent content up to 1.0%, above which both porosity levels and pore sizes did not change. The compressive strength and flexural strength of the as-prepared sample with porosity of 76% and average pore size of 313 μm remained as high as 15.3±0.3 MPa and 3.7±0.2 MPa, respectively, and permeability increased exponentially with increasing the porosity.     

发泡法制备镁铝尖晶石轻质耐火骨料

用发泡法制备镁铝尖晶石轻质耐火骨料,采用X射线衍射、阿基米德排水法、透射偏光显微镜分别研究了试样的晶相、气孔率和气孔形貌,并通过断面图法计算试样的孔径分布。试样气孔结构是由泡沫形成和泡沫稳定性所决定的。结果表明:以十二烷基苯磺酸纳为发泡剂,加入量为0.5%(质量分数),陶瓷料浆温度控制在10℃,可以制得气孔率为59.81%、气孔平均孔径为60μm且分布均匀的镁铝尖晶石轻质耐火骨料。     

Preparation of Porous Glass‐Based Thick Film Using Diffusion‐Induced Phase Separation from Scrap Glass

The porous glass thick film was fabricated by the diffusion‐induced phase separation and the sintering technique from scrap glass, polyvinylidene fluoride, and dimethylacetamide (DMAc). Pores formed due to the dissolution of DMAc in water. As heat treatment temperature increases, densification of porous glass was gradually enhanced while the pore channels were maintained. Porosity data of ~62% and 55% were obtained at 700°C and 800°C, respectively. The pore size diameters were 91.1 μm (700°C) and 90.8 μm (800°C) separately. The porous materials showed acid durability partially because flower‐like crystals were dissolved in 1M HCl solution. The process reported in this paper provided a simple method to prepare porous glass under one‐step calcinations at low temperature and was helpful for the reuse technology of scrap glass.     

Ceramic shell foams produced by direct foaming and gelcasting of proteins: Permeability and microstructural characterization by X-ray microtomography

In this work, ceramic shell foams produced by direct foaming and gelcasting of proteins containing 35 vol.% of solids were efficiently tailored through the optimization of suspension parameters, foaming and also according to the gelling temperature. These were key parameters employed for controlling the foamability and foam stability, and hence the foam porosity and pore characteristics after the sintering process. The potential of using microtomography in characterizing the morphometric parameters of foams was explored. Airflow permeability measurements (∼24 °C to 727 °C) were performed in order to investigate the applicability of such materials in the fluid flow field. The samples exhibited a wide range of pore sizes (60 ± 5–1700 ± 90 μm), porosity values higher than 80 %, Darcian (k₁) and non-Darcian (k₂) permeability coefficients values in the ranges of 1.32–1.83 x 10⁻⁹ m² and 8.34–22.46 x 10^-5 m, respectively.     

Preparation of zirconium carbide foam by direct foaming method

Ultra light, highly porous, closed-cell structured ZrC foam can be produced in two steps. First, pre-ceramic foam is prepared by direct foaming of zirconia sol and phenolic resin. In the next step, the foamed green body is converted into ZrC foam after carbothermal reduction at 1600 °C under argon atmosphere. The obtained ZrC foam has porosity of 85% and possesses uniform cells with an average size of about 40 μm. The foam also displays excellent thermal stability up to 2400 °C. Its compressive strength and thermal conductivity at room temperature are 0.4 MPa and 0.94 W/(m K), respectively.     

A facile route for the preparation of silica foams using rice husk ash

This work aims to synthesize silica foam with around 75 vol. % open porosity without using any additive or pore forming agents, in order to prevent the generation of greenhouse gases during pore formation in the silica matrix. Waste rice husk ash (RHA) derived silica is used as a silica source, which is extracted through the alkali extraction synthesis route. Several physical characterizations such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), differential thermal-thermogravimetric (DTA-TGA) and FTIR analysis have been done for RHA extracted silica. Silica foam specimens are fabricated through control compaction pressure and at low foaming temperature. Samples which are fired at 550°C for 30 minutes exhibit both a adequate apparent porosity (AP; ~75.82%) and significant compressive strength (~1.54 MPa). It can also be observed that the porosity and strength values are changed with the variation in compaction pressure and foaming temperature.     

Optimization of structure and properties of polyphenylene sulfide porous membrane by controlling the process of thermally induced phase separation

Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) porous membranes were successfully prepared from miscible blends of PPS and polyethersulfone (PES) via thermally induced phase separation followed by subsequent extraction of the PES diluent. The morphologies, crystalline structures, mechanical properties, pore structures and permeate fluxes of the PPS porous membranes obtained from different phase separation processes were characterized and are discussed. During the phase separation in the heating process, PPS and PES mainly underwent liquid–liquid phase separation, and then a nonhomogeneous porous structure with a mean pore size of 100 μm and a honeycomb‐like internal structure formed on the membrane surface. The phase separation of PPS/PES occurring in the cooling process was easier to control and the related pore diameter distribution was more regular. In the process of direct annealing, as the phase separation temperature decreased, the pore size distribution became more homogeneous and the mean diameter of the pores also decreased gradually. When the phase separation temperature decreased to 200 °C, PPS membranes with a network structure and a uniform as well as well‐interconnected porous structure could be obtained. In addition, the maximum permeation flux reached 1718.03 L m^–2 h^–1 when the phase separation temperature was 230 °C. The most probable pore diameter was 6.665 nm, and the permeate flux of this membrane was 2.00 L m^–2 h^–1; its tensile strength was 17.07 MPa. Finally, these PPS porous membranes with controllable pore structure as well as size can be widely used in the chemical industry and energy field for liquid purification. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry     

Kolonnenschäumen I: The Technique of Laminae Column Foaming

Abstract

Laminae column foaming is a special type of column foaming (foam separation). The foam is degraded to fast-moving, nearly planar laminae, which are rinsed by reflux. The method is distinguished by a simple technique, quick establishment of the steady state, and the possibility of working even with low-foaming solutions and handling small quantities of substances. The uncomplicated surface formation and laminae/wall system enable the principles of foam separation to be studied. The phenomena of laminae column foaming are described, as are types of laminae producers, countercurrent columns, and laminae destroyers, and a complete apparatus with circulating gas. Column foaming is compared with column distillation and column crystallization, and its place in the system of column separation methods is discussed.     

Microencapsulation in foam spray drying

Abstract

The article presents the results of the experiments of gas-admixing foam spray drying microencapsulation of oil in co-current spray drying tower. The introduction of a foaming gas resulted in a decrease of encapsulation efficiency: for high foaming gas/liquid ratio (GLR) 6.43·10^?3 kg/kg and T_air,0=215?°C by over 50% relative to the non-foaming process due to damage of the microcapsule structure and leakage of the oil phase to the particle surface. For moderate drying temperatures and GLR, 80% of microencapsulation efficiency might be achieved with simultaneous control of selected product properties like apparent and bulk density or angle of repose. Abbreviations GLR gas-to-liquid ratio

HR Hausner ratio

MDX maltodextrin

PSD particle size distribution

SEM scanning electron microscope.

     

Synthesis and Assessment of a CO2‐Switchable Foaming Agent Used in Drilling Fluids for Underbalanced Drilling

In underbalanced drilling, a switchable foam fluid is essential to reduce the drilling cost. A switchable foaming agent was synthesized by carbonyl–amine condensation and characterized by Fourier transform infrared and ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry showed that the tolerable temperature limit of the surfactant was 128 °C. The effectiveness of CO₂/N₂ switching was confirmed by analysis of the electrical conductivity and surface tension. Utilizing the foaming agent, 3 different foam systems (unstable, stable, and hard) were designed for drilling after formula optimization. Experimentally, the self‐circulation indicated that the foaming fluids still maintained great foaming performance even after multiple cycles. The experiment also indicated that the suspension of the foam systems was 50–90 times that of water and had a significant resistance to salts (NaCl, CaCl₂). Besides, the foam systems found that the suitable foaming temperature was 40–100 °C and that the hard foam system could maintain the foaming performance up to 120 °C. In the oil resistance experiment, the foaming ability of the foam systems decreased obviously above a kerosene content of 5% (w/v), whereas a certain foaming performance still could be ensured below 10% kerosene.     

Generation of microcellular polymeric foams using supercritical carbon dioxide. II: Cell growth and skin formation

We have generated microcellular polymeric foam structures using a pressure induced phase separation in concentrated mixtures of supercritical CO₂ and poly(methyl methacrylate). The process typically generates a microcellular core structure encased by a nonporous skin, the thickness of which decreases with increasing saturation pressure. This trend can be described by a model for skin formation that is based on the diffusion rate of gas out of the sample. Significant density reductions on the order of 30 to 70% can be achieved by changing the pressure and temperature conditions in the foaming process. There are several ways in which the saturation pressure affects the average cell size, with the net effect that cell size decreases sharply with increasing pressure above 2000 psi, leveling out at higher pressures. Cell size increases with increasing temperature from 40°C to 70°C. A model for cell growth, based on a cell model of Aremanesh and Advani, modified to include the effect of CO₂ on model parameters, reproduces these trends.     

Foaming of Homogeneous Polypropylene and Ethylene-Polypropylene Block Copolymer Using Supercritical Carbon Dioxide

A new process was used to foam homogeneous polypropylene (HPP) and ethylene-polypropylene block copolymer (CPP). Many different foaming behaviors of these two kinds of PP were observed. The HPP and CPP were characterized by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), and Capillary Rheometry. We find that the melt shear viscosity of CPP is more sensitive to the temperature variation than that of HPP, thus leading to larger change of cell diameter of CPP with foaming temperature. Cell size of CPP is the result of competition between cell nucleation and cell growth. When the saturation pressure is lower or higher than 25 MPa, cell nucleation or cell growth plays a dominant role, which leads to the increase or decrease of cell size, respectively. Because of its low melting temperature and crystallinity, cell diameter of CPP increases with the infiltration temperature increasing, which is opposite to those of HPP. And at the foaming temperature of 152°C or 158°C, cell diameter of CPP increases or decreases with an increase in foaming time, while that of HPP decreases with foaming time increasing at both foaming temperatures.     

A strategy for the preparation of closed‐cell and crosslinked polypropylene foam by supercritical CO2 foaming

We report the preparation of a closed‐cell polypropylene (PP) foam material by supercritical carbon dioxide foaming with the assistance of γ‐ray radiation crosslinking. Styrene–ethylene–butadiene–styrene (SEBS) copolymer was added to PP to enhance radiation crosslinking and nucleation. Radiation effects on the foaming of the PP/SEBS blend with different ratios were investigated. A significant improvement in the foaming of the crosslinked PP/SEBS blend was achieved as compared to pristine PP. The cell density of the crosslinked PP/SEBS foam greatly increased at a dose of 10 kGy and a high closed‐cell ratio was obtained. The tensile strength of the crosslinked PP/SEBS foams (10 kGy) was improved from 14 to 20.7 MPa compared to pristine PP foam (0 kGy). In addition, the crosslinked PP/SEBS blend exhibited a wider foaming temperature window (10 °C) as compared to the non‐crosslinked ones (4 °C). © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2018 , 135, 45809.     

Protein Recovery from Sweet Potato Starch Wastewater by Foam Separation

In this study, an inclined foam separation column was designed to effectively recover protein from sweet potato starch wastewater. The effects of the influent protein concentration, pH, air flow rate, influent volume, foaming time, and inclined column angle on foam separation performance were assessed. The optimum foam separation conditions consisted of influent protein concentration 4.51 mg/mL, pH 4, air flow rate 0.15 mL/min, influent volume 500 mL, foaming time 100 min, and inclined column angle 30°. In these conditions, protein recovery percentage and enrichment ratios were 84.1% and 1.3, respectively. The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD₅) and chemical oxygen demand (COD_Cr) of the residual solution (620 and 950 mg/mL, respectively) were lower than those of the original (influent) solution.     

Performance study of foam ceramics prepared by direct foaming method using red mud and K-feldspar washed waste

In this study, foam ceramics were prepared via a direct foaming method at high temperatures (1080–1120 °C), using red mud (RM) and K-feldspar washed waste (KFW) as the raw materials and SiC as the foaming agent, respectively. The chemical compositions and crystalline phases of the raw materials as well as the structural and mechanical properties of the foam ceramics were investigated. By adjusting the formulation and sintering process parameters, the porous structure of the foam ceramics could be effectively modulated. In addition to some residual crystalline phases in the raw materials, new phases, including rutile (TiO₂) and anorthite (CaAl₂Si₂O₈), were generated in foam ceramics. The compressive strength of the foam ceramics decreased with an increase in the KFW/RM ratio and sintering temperature, which was mainly related to the low density of the foam ceramics and the poor support of the pore walls to the structure. Among all the foam ceramics investigated, the foam ceramic with the KFW/RM ratio of 1:1, SiC content of 1 wt%, sintering temperature of 1100 °C and sintering time of 60 min showed the best overall performance with a bulk density, an apparent porosity, an average pore size and a compressive strength of 0.77 g/cm³, 61.89%, 0.52 mm, and 3.64 MPa, respectively. Its excellent porous structure and mechanical properties rendered it suitable for application as insulation materials or decorative materials for building partition walls.     

Cost‐effective porous ceramic tubes fabricated through a phase inversion/casting process using calcined bauxite

Cost‐effective ceramic tubes based on low‐price commercial calcined bauxite for economical separation were fabricated by a new phase‐inversion casting method. The thermal shrinkage and weight loss during heating of the green tubes were characterized by dilatometric analysis and TG, respectively. Three shrinkage stages appear successively, corresponding to the viscous deformation of polymeric binder at 200‐300°C, significant combustion loss of ~5.2 wt% at 500‐620°C and sintering shrinkage over 800°C, respectively. However, due to high enough viscosity of the casting suspension that can guarantee the green tube against collapse or deformation during the phase inversion/casting process, the sintered tubes display nearly uniform microstructure instead of characteristic asymmetrical structure of the phase inversion process. The influence of sintering temperature on the pore property (including pore size and porosity) and mechanical strength was investigated. As the sintering temperature increases from 1200 to 1400°C, the porosity and average pore size decrease from 46.4% to 37.0% and from 0.98 to 0.81 μm, respectively, and the flexural strength increases from 25.8 to 65.1 MPa. The cost‐effective ceramic tube sintering at the range of 1250‐1400°C can be capable of functioning as a microfiltration membrane or an ultrafiltration membrane support.     

Integrated utilization of high alumina fly ash for synthesis of foam glass ceramic

Due to the numerous increase of the building energy consumption and huge volume of industrial wastes produced in China, the development of thermal insulation materials is quite needed. Herein, foam glass ceramic, a kind of thermal insulation materials, was fabricated by using solid wastes high alumina fly ash and waste glass as the main raw materials. First, in this study the proportion scheme of this research was designed by using Factsage 7.1 and the foaming agent was CaSO₄. Secondly, the decomposition of calcium sulfate and the influence of process parameters, namely the sintering temperature and the foaming agent additive amount, on the microstructure and mechanical properties of foam glass ceramic were investigated. The experimental results showed that when the proposed foam glass ceramic was sintered at between 1180 and 1220?°C, it exerted excellent macro and micro properties. The optimum parameters were 2% CaSO₄ addition and sintering temperature of 1200?°C, and the corresponding bulk density and compress strength values were 0.98?g/cm³ and 9.84?MPa, respectively. Overall these results indicated that the preparation of foam glass ceramic made up a promising strategy for recycling industrial waste into new kind of building insulation materials.     

Epoxy‐based gelcasting of machinable hydroxyapatite foams for medical applications

Machinable hydroxyapatite foams for subtractive manufacturing of customized bone scaffolds have been developed. The foams were prepared by direct foaming of water‐based hydroxyapatite suspension with dissolved epoxy resin. The foams were consolidated by gelation of the epoxy‐based suspension in air atmosphere. The effect of processing conditions on the foam structure was investigated. The foams had a cellular‐like structure with interconnected pores. The sintered foam with 78% open porosity, the most frequent pore size 430 μm, and the most frequent interconnecting pore window size 150 μm, has been chosen as the foam with the optimal structure from the viewpoint of an application in bone regeneration. The compressive strength of this sintered foam reached 3.3 MPa. The machinability of the optimal foam was investigated using computer numerical controlled (CNC) milling of a test pattern. The milling tests were carried out with the foam at different processing stages and after impregnation with paraffin wax. The best milling result was obtained for a dried foam impregnated with paraffin. The applicability of the whole processing chain was demonstrated and a customized scaffold was manufactured.