Torsional Fatigue Cracking and Fracture Behaviors of Cold-Drawn Copper:Effects of Microstructure and Axial Stress

The fatigue cracking and fracture behavior of cold-drawn copper subjected to cyclic torsional loading were investigated in this study.It was found that with increasing stress amplitude,the fracture mode of cold-drawn copper gradually changes from a shear fracture on transverse maximum shear stress plane to a mixed shear mode on both transverse and longitudinal shear planes and finally turns to the shear fracture on multiple longitudinal shear planes.Combining the cracking morphology and the relationship between torsional fatigue cracking and the grain boundaries,the fracture mechanism of cold-drawn copper under cyclic torsional loading was analyzed and proposed by considering the effects of the microstructure and axial stress caused by torsion.Because of the promotion of the grain boundary distribution on longitudinal crack propagation and the inhibition of axial stress on transverse crack grown,the tendency of crack propagation along the longitudinal direction increases with increasing stress levels.     

The effects of film formation and mechanical factors on the initiation of stress corrosion cracking of unalloyed steels in carbonate solutions

Investigations into the intergranular stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of unalloyed steel St 36 in carbonate-bicarbonate solutions have shown that SCC susceptibility is limited to the potential range of magnetite formation for both constant load and constant strain rate tests. Experiments to determine the creep behaviour of the steel in the corrosive solution show that creep rates corresponding to the critical strain rates in the constant strain rate test occur during the crack initiation state after loading of the tensile specimen with a constant crack initiating load. These experimental findings establish, therefore, that critical crack initiating strain rates of the unalloyed steel are always present during the initial stage for SCC regardless of the test method used. The cause of crack initiation at grain boundaries can be attributed to the fact that the magnetite layers feature faults and grooves in the oxide along the grain boundaries in the entire critical potential range. These oxide grooves, which are also observed on unstressed steel, cause a notch-like localized corrosion attack. The depth and crack tip radius of the resultant grain boundary notches appear to be sufficient to initiate propagating cracks under the single action of predominately pure stresses without macroscopic deformation of the steel. This does not necessarily mean, however, that a purely stress induced corrosion process is involved, for it is not out of question that the concentration of stress in the base of grain boundary notches is sufficient to cause localized deformation processes required for crack initiation.     

Effect of preheat on residual stress distributions in arc-welded mild steel plates

Residual stress distribution in the longitudinal and transverse directions on a 6-mm-thick arc-welded mild steel plate was experimentally examined with and without initial preheat. Stress measurements were completed by monitoring strain changes on mounted strain gauges resulting from successive milling of the welded plate specimens. Machining stresses were also compensated for by carrying out measurements of strain changes due to milling operation of a stress-free unwelded annealed mild steel plate. High tensile residual stresses exist close to the weld line in both longitudinal and transverse stresses. Maximum longitudinal residual stress values existing close to the weld line are reduced (between 50 and 75%) due to the effect of initial metal preheat of 200 °C of the welded steel plate.     

SCC initiation for X65 pipeline steel in the “high” pH carbonate/bicarbonate solution

The initiation of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) was studied using scanning electron microscope observations of linearly increasing stress test specimens. SCC initiation from the following surfaces was studied: (i) initiation from the commercial pipe surface covered by the Zn coating, (ii) initiation from a mechanically polished surface with a deformed layer, and (iii) initiation from an electro-polished surface. SCC initiation involved different features for these surfaces as follows. (i) For the Zn coated commercial pipe surface, a crack in the Zn coating led to the dissolution of the deformed layer and when the deformed layer was penetrated, intergranular SCC initiation became possible. (ii) For a mechanically polished surface with a deformed layer, cracks in the surface oxide concentrated the anodic dissolution to such an extent that there was transgranular SCC in the deformed layer. SCC was intergranular when the deformed layer had been penetrated. Transgranular stress corrosion cracks were stopped at ferrite grain boundaries (GBs) oriented perpendicular to the SCC propagation direction. (iii) For an electro-polished surface, the surface oxide film was cracked at many locations, but intergranular SCC only propagated into the steel when the oxide crack corresponded to a GB. An oxide crack away from a GB is expected to be healed. The observed SCC initiation mechanism was not associated with simple preferential chemical attack of the ferrite GBs.     

TiAl裂纹形核和塑性变形关系的研究

对层状结构ＴｉＡｌ在扫描电镜中原位拉伸,发现裂纹前端首先出现滑移带,只有当局部塑性变形发展和临界状态,位错塞积应力等于原子键合务时才会使微米尺寸卑贱 裂纹不连续形核,裂纹可沿滑移带形核,可沿其它是面形核,方扩展,新的不连续裂纺的阻力不为民增大     

New insights into the stress corrosion cracking of carbon steel in ethanolic media

Potentiostatic slow strain rate testing was conducted on stress corrosion cracking (SCC) test specimens exposed to ethanolic environments prepared from pure dehydrated ethanol. The mechanism of SCC in such environments is not well-understood. Cracks of various types—intergranular and transgranular open cracks, and sharp closed transgranular cracks—were found by altering several testing parameters. The presence of chloride was found to be essential for crack initiation. A scanning electron microscope examination indicated that an “anodic” cracking mechanism, not necessarily slip dissolution, was most likely operating at high elongations. Sharp, closed transgranular cracks, with a maximum depth of 4 µm, were detected at elongations below 3% in ethanol solutions containing 2.5-mM LiCl. A focused ion beam was used to extract such a transgranular crack tip for analytical transmission electron microscopy using electron energy loss spectroscopy, which confirmed that the crack was in a ferrite grain. The sharp closed transgranular cracks seem to ally with the cracks observed in CO–CO₂–H₂O and anhydrous ammonia environments, which are proposed to grow by unique cleavage mechanisms. The possibility of embrittlement by carbon interstitials produced by ethanol electro-oxidation within the crack is discussed.     

Effect of inclusions on initiation of stress corrosion cracks in X70 pipeline steel in an acidic soil environment

The effect of inclusions on the initiation of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) X70 pipeline steel was investigated in an acidic soil solution using slow strain rate test, scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray techniques. The results demonstrated that stress corrosion cracks are not initiated in X70 steel when it is under anodic polarization. At cathodic polarization, hydrogen evolution is enhanced, and hydrogen is actively involved in SCC processes. Two types of inclusions exist in the steel and play different role in crack initiation. The inclusions enriching in Al are brittle and incoherent to the metal matrix. Microcracks and interstices are quite easily to be resulted in at the boundary between inclusions and metal. There is no crack initiating at inclusions containing mainly Si.     

Influence of local stress on initiation behavior of stress corrosion cracking for sensitized 304 stainless steel

To investigate the influence of local stress on initiation behavior of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) for sensitized Type 304 stainless steel, cracking process during constant load SCC test was monitored and recorded with an in situ crack observation system. The changes in number of cracks, sum of crack length and cracked area on the specimen surface with test time were identified from the cracking images analyzed by image processing. In the SCC tests, many cracks were initiated and coalesced on the surface, and the coalescence of cracks played an important role to primary crack growth. The influence of applied stress on crack initiation was different from that on crack growth. In addition, there was a difference between influences of stress on incubation period to crack initiation and crack initiation rate. Due to these differences, a stress of 0.8S_y was thought to cause relatively many cracks compared with 0.5S_y and 1.3S_y (S_y = 200 MPa). Through quantitative estimation of distribution in local stress around a crack by finite element analysis method, it was deduced that the crack initiation is influenced not only by bulk stress applied at the end of the body, but also by local stress formed around pre-existing cracks. According to pre-existing cracks, stress enhancement accelerates the crack growth, while the stress relaxation causes the suppression of new crack initiation. Based on the experiment and analysis results, three types of growth process were suggested, which are caused by propagation itself, by new crack initiation at vicinity of the crack tip, and by coalescence of approaching cracks. Then, it was concluded that, in order to predict/simulate the cracking behavior of this SCC system, the influence of local stress on the crack initiation should be taken into account.     

Primary water stress corrosion cracking (PWSCC) mechanism based on ordering reaction in Alloy 600

A PWSCC mechanism based on an ordering reaction in Alloy 600 is proposed. An activation energy for the ordering reaction in Alloy 600, Q = ～46 kcal/mole (～190 kJ/mole), are determined by a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). The ordering reaction in Alloy 600 is an indispensable process during reactor operating conditions. The ordering reaction in Alloy 600 causes an anisotropic lattice contraction. This anisotropic contraction produces an additional stress. The stress level would be the maximum value about 70 and 300 MPa according to the lattice planes in Alloy 600 and Weld 182, respectively. In addition, the anisotropic contraction forms the micro cracks in the high angle grain boundary where the difference in lattice contraction is large. The formation of crack induces stress intensification at the crack tip, and this causes crack growth. The initiation and propagation of PWSCC is controlled by the formation, growth, and coalescence of micro cracks due to anisotropic lattice contraction by ordering. These whole processes are governed by the kinetics of the ordering reaction. This is the reason why the activation energy for PWSCC, Q pwscc = 40–50 kcal/mol, is consistent with that for the ordering reaction, Q ordering = 46 kcal/mol. This mechanism can be proved by the comparison of the initiation behavior in the ordered and the disordered specimens.     

About the Authors

Abstract

Anisotropy in stress corrosion cracking of lean grade UNS S32101 and standard grade UNS S32205 hot rolled duplex stainless steels was evaluated in this study. Microstructures were characterised with stereology methods in three orthogonal orientations to quantify anisotropy in phase distribution. Constant extension rate tests were conducted in an autoclave at 2×10^?6 s^?1 in chloride containing alkaline sulphide solution at 170°C. The maximum crack lengths and average crack densities were measured for the rolling longitudinal and transverse longitudinal orientations after stress corrosion cracking tests. Results indicate that stress corrosion crack initiation and growth are a strong function of the microstructure in each orientation. Maximum crack length and average crack density were maximum for the rolling longitudinal orientation. Crack initiation and growth were favoured along the transverse direction. Chlorides enhanced anisotropy in crack growth behaviour by facilitating crack initiation and crack coalescence along phase boundaries, which lead to more severe stress corrosion cracking in the alkaline sulphide environments that were studied.     

玻璃喷丸处理提高304不锈钢焊接接头抗应力腐蚀性能的研究

基于对304不锈钢焊接试板表面喷丸处理前后的表层残余应力X射线衍射测量，研究了在42％沸腾MgCl2溶液中，表面玻璃喷丸和铸钢喷丸对304不锈钢焊接试板应力腐蚀开裂敏感性的影响，比较了采用不同铸钢喷丸和玻璃喷丸处理工艺的304不锈钢焊接试板抗应力腐蚀开裂的能力．试验结果表明：未喷丸处理的焊接试板6h就发生开裂，50％、100％覆盖率的铸钢喷丸焊接试板分别在试验310h和3500h开裂，而200％覆盖率的铸钢喷丸焊接试板，50％、100％、200％覆盖率的玻璃喷丸焊接试板经历3500h也未见开裂．因此，喷丸处理工艺能够很好地提高焊接构件抗应力腐蚀开裂能力；且在同样喷丸强度下，焊接接头经玻璃喷丸工艺处理后的抗应力腐蚀能力明显优于铸钢喷丸处理工艺．     

激光熔化沉积TC18钛合金的低周疲劳行为

研究激光熔化沉积TC18钛合金的室温低周疲劳行为。通过双重退火热处理制度获得的TC18钛合金显微组织由细小的片层状初生α相和转变β基体组成,且晶界α相不均匀。采用光学显微镜和扫描电子显微镜分析了低周疲劳试样疲劳断口以及纵截面。结果表明,在低周疲劳断口可以观察到多个裂纹源。主裂纹源区与次裂纹源区具有不同的断裂形貌。当裂纹沿着晶界α相扩展时,连续的晶界α相导致平直的裂纹扩展模式,而不连续的晶界α相导致曲折的裂纹扩展路径。     

循环压缩载荷下Ni3Al基合金单晶体的疲劳开裂

采用两种晶体取向的单边缺口试样，在循环压缩载荷下对Ｎｉ３Ａｌ基合金单晶体的疲劳裂纹萌生和扩展行为进行了研究。在循环压缩载荷下，第一阶段的晶体学开裂在缺口根部同时沿着两个或更多的（１１１）面发生。     

AZ31镁合金摩擦搅拌焊在慢拉伸应力腐蚀过程中的组织演化和氢致延迟开裂

研究AZ31镁合金摩擦搅拌焊组织的演化,包括织构和断口变化。利用中子衍射仪测量织构。利用光学显微镜和扫描电子显微镜观察应力腐蚀开裂（SCC）样品的金相及断口形貌。利用X射线衍射仪研究SCC样品的断口表面结构。结果表明,在母材表面形成了明显的基面织构。然而,搅拌区晶粒发生了基面旋转,大多数晶粒的基面沿着焊接方向倾斜25°。在慢拉伸应力作用下,在空气和侵蚀性溶液中分别形成了羽毛状孪晶和氢化物。在溶液中,穿晶裂纹扩展,最终断裂在回转侧。在断口表面存在的氢化物表明镁合金应力腐蚀可能存在氢致延迟开裂机制。     

Evaluation of stress corrosion cracking phenomenon in an AISI type 316LN stainless steel using acoustic emission technique

This paper deals with the analysis of the acoustic emission (AE) signals to determine the micro-process during stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of AISI type 316LN stainless steel that cause the AE, and thus the mechanism of the SCC process. AE with amplitudes ranging from 27.6 to 46.5 dB with different counts, energy and rise times occurred during SCC of type 316LN stainless steel in 45% MgCl₂ at 413 K. The analysis of the AE signals in conjunction with fractography indicated that a surge in the AE counts and energy indicated initiation of SCC. AE was found to be continuous prior to the initiation. The time gap between AE events increased during initiation. AE events occurred in bursts during crack growth. Plastic deformation ahead of the crack tip was determined to be the major source of AE during propagation of SCC in type 316LN stainless steel. The cracking was found to initiate and propagate in the transgranular mode.     

Measured and predicted intergranular strains in textured austenitic steel

Tensile specimens were machined from heat-treated austenitic stainless steel plate prior to and after 70% reduction by uni-directional rolling. In addition to a single specimen cut from the as-received plate, two specimens were cut from the rolled plate, with axes parallel and perpendicular to the rolling direction, respectively. In situ measurements of the strain response of multiple hkl lattice planes to an applied uniaxial tensile load were made using neutron diffraction, to macroscopic plastic strains of around 1%. The experimental results are compared with predictions from a self-consistent Hill–Hutchinson model. The measured texture in the plate was approximately three times random; however, its effect on the hkl response was small compared to the residual strains left by rolling. The apparent elastic modulus of the planes is affected by the residual strains, which is attributed to the effect of micro-plasticity. Interpretation of residual stress measurements, for both single peak and Rietveld measurements is considered in light of these results.     

γ—TiAl层状结构裂尖应力场的有限元分析

根据γ-TiAl层状晶体（PST晶体）的微观结构,构造了可使用有限元计算的夹心基元。由有限元计算表明,当裂尖平行于片层时,裂尖前端所有滑移系上的分切应力都很小。即滑移较弱,而沿片层界面（它总是解理面之一）的正应力有最大值,这表明,裂尖将沿片层扩展,而且塑性小,当裂纹垂直于片层时,裂尖前端很多滑移系上的分切应力都很大,最大正应力并不在片层界面上,而总在跨片层的解理面上,这表明,裂尖在片层内解理,并且塑性很大。     

�����¶ȶ������岻���00Cr21Mo1֯����Ӱ��

 本文通过金相和EBSD等技术,观察了不同热轧终轧温度对00Cr21Mo1铁素体不锈钢热轧态、热轧退火态、冷轧退火态织构的变化的影响情况,并分析讨论了较高终轧温度下铁素体不锈钢00Cr21Mo1塑性应变比（Rm）较低的原因。结果表明,较低的终轧温度下,00Cr21Mo1热轧态组织形变带宽度较小,受轧辊切应变而形成的{110}<001>、{110}<112>、{4 4 11}<11 11 8>织构组分强度较小,且均匀、分散,最终冷轧退火态以{111}面织构为主,塑性应变比较高。     

Intergranular stress corrosion cracking of copper in nitrite solutions

Semi-hard tubes of deoxidized high phosphorous copper with different levels of tangential residual stresses have been exposed to nitrite solutions in a laboratory heating circuit. After characterization of investigated materials influence of temperature, location of heating, concentration of solution, electrochemical potential, and atmosphere on stress corrosion cracking susceptibility of those copper tubes has been investigated. Threshold stress for crack initiation has been determined. Maximum duration of experiments was 1 month. Breakthrough time of tubes has been measured as criterion for susceptibility to SCC.To vary stress level in a wider range constant load tests on tubes with different degrees of cold working (annealed, semi-hard, hard) were done by mounting them in a steel frame.Stress corrosion cracks were always intergranular. A tenorite layer covered surface of cracked copper tubes. A reaction scheme for ammonia formation is presented. Necessary conditions for formation of stress corrosion are shown and critically discussed.Results show that intergranular cracking takes place at much lower stress levels below yield strength when compared to literature data on transgranular cracking above yield strength. For transgranular cracking cross slipping and cleavage formation as cracking mechanism is confirmed while for intergranular cracking chemical dissolution of grain boundaries plays a more important role.     

变形区形状参数对钽板组织均匀性的影响

通过控制每道次的轧制压下量,获得了两组轧制变形区形状参数,对高纯钽板进行周向轧制,得到了70%变形量的样品,并对样品进行了真空退火处理(1050℃/1 h)。应用X射线衍射(XRD)技术测量了轧制样品表面层与中间层的宏观织构,结合背散射电子衍射(EBSD)技术表征了轧制样品沿厚度方向上的变形组织与微织构,以及退火态样品的显微组织与织构。结果表明:大的变形区形状参数(2.01~3.29)在轧板表面引入了明显的剪切应变,沿钽板厚度方向易产生严重的织构梯度,钽板表面层形成{hkl}<110>织构以及{100}织构,中间层形成强烈的{111}织构。较小的变形区形状参数(1.67~2.28)有利于产生均匀变形,可以有效弱化中间层的{111}织构,增强{100}织构。轧制组织中增强的{100}织构可以抑制{111}取向再结晶晶粒的异常长大,对细化显微组织有利。