Theories of sexual orientation.

Various theories assume that sexual orientation is related to sex role orientation or to erotic orientation. Hypotheses derived from these 2 assumptions were tested. Heterosexual, bisexual, and homosexual undergraduates (185 Ss) were administered measures of their masculine and feminine attributes (determined by the Personal Attributes Questionnaire) and their erotic fantasies (measured by the Erotic Response and Orientation Scale). Results generally fail to support the hypotheses derived from sex role theories of sexual orientation; within each sex, homosexuals, heterosexuals, and bisexuals did not differ on measures of masculinity and femininity. Strong support was obtained for the hypothesis that sexual orientation relates primarily to erotic fantasy orientation. These latter results support a 2-dimensional model of sexual orientation in which homosexuality and heterosexuality are treated as separate, independent factors. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-regulated exposure to erotica, recall errors, and subjective reactions as a function of erotophobia and Type A coronary-prone behavior.

Tested the hypotheses that "erotophiles" would spend more time viewing erotica and remember the content of the material more accurately than "erotophobes," and the Type A (coronary prone) Ss would spend less time viewing erotica than Type B (non coronary prone) Ss. 36 male and 34 female undergraduates completed a sexual opinion survey and the Jenkins Activity Survey—Form T. Ss then individually viewed 21 explicit heterosexual slides, with duration of exposure time controlled by each S. As hypothesized, erotophiles had longer exposure times than erotophobes and, as a consequence, made fewer errors in recalling content. Coronary-prone behavior interacted with erotophobia in a consistent though unanticipated way. Among Type As, exposure time and errors were unrelated to erotophobia, but the predicted effects occurred for Type Bs. It appeared that the time-relevant orientation of Type As outweighed the ordinary effects of emotion-based reaction to erotic stimuli. Significant effects on self-reported feelings were also found, as were several sex differences. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cultural myths and supports for rape.

Tested hypotheses derived from social psychological and feminist theory that acceptance of rape myths can be predicted from attitudes such as sex role stereotyping, adversarial sexual beliefs, sexual conservatism, and acceptance of interpersonal violence. Personality characteristics, background characteristics, and personal exposure to rape, rape victims, and rapists are other factors used in predictions. Results from regression analysis of interview data from 598 randomly selected adults indicate that the higher the sex role stereotyping, adversarial sexual beliefs, and acceptance of interpersonal violence, the greater an S's acceptance of rape myths. In addition, younger and better educated Ss revealed fewer stereotypic, adversarial, and proviolence attitudes and less rape myth acceptance. Implications for understanding and changing this cultural orientation toward sexual assault are discussed. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Doctoral students view their APA counseling psychology programs.

A survey studied counseling psychology programs and examined the characteristics of 1st- and 2nd-yr doctoral students. Results were based on questionnaires received from 203 students representing 20 programs. There were significant differences between several programs on the variables of sex, age, work experience, and academic level. Ss perceived their programs primarily as eclectic in theoretical and experiential orientation. There were differences between programs in the emphasis given research, practical applications, and personal growth. Ss expressed preferences for greater input in curricula, more contact with faculty, and more cooperation among their peers. They gave positive overall ratings for their doctoral programs. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The place of attachment in human mating.

Application of the principles of evolution and natural selection to the phenomena of human mating does not lead inevitably to a single theoretical model. According to the standard evolutionary model, formally known as sexual strategies theory (D. M. Buss & D. P. Schmitt, 1993), biologically based sex differences in parental investment have resulted in hard-wired sex differences in mate preferences and mating strategies. A critical analysis of the logical and empirical foundations of the theory reveals several weaknesses and limitations. This article demonstrates how attachment theory (J. Bowlby, 1969/1982, 1973, 1979, 1980, 1988) can be used to integrate a diverse set of ideas and research findings and provide a more grounded account of human mating. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological androgyny and sex role flexibility: A test of two hypotheses.

In a conceptual replication and extension of a study by S. L. Bem and E. Lenney (1976), 90 male and 118 female college students rated their comfort in and preference for performing several series of masculine, feminine, and neutral activities. Correlations between ratings and scores on the masculinity (instrumentality) and femininity (expressiveness) scales of the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) of J. T. Spence and R. L. Helmreich (1978) tended to be theoretically reasonable in sign but in each sex were low in magnitude and only occasionally significant. Classification of Ss into 4 PAQ groups (androgynous, masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated) on their joint masculinity and femininity scores revealed that androgynous and masculine Ss of both sexes had higher comfort ratings, independent of type of task, than did feminine and undifferentiated Ss, suggesting the importance of instrumentality and expressiveness per se. For forced-choice preference ratings, significant differences were found only in males, masculine Ss having a stronger preference for sex-typed tasks than those in other categorical groups. The PAQ variable, however, accounted for only a small percentage of the variance. The data support the Spence-Helmreich hypotheses that the PAQ and similar instruments are largely measures of instrumental and expressive personality traits rather than sex roles and that these personality dimensions are only minimally related to many sex role behaviors. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexual attitudes and experience: Attitude and personality correlates and changes produced by a course in sexuality.

Administered a battery of personality and sexual experience and attitude tests (e.g., the Suppression of Sex scale from the Parental Attitude Research Instrument, M. Zuckerman's Heterosexual and Homosexual Experience scales, I. L. Reiss's Social and Emotional Relationship scales, the Sensation-seeking Scale, the Personality Research Form, and the Personal Orientation Inventory) to 224 male and 331 female undergraduates enrolled in either a human sexuality or a personality psychology course (control). Males were more permissive in attitudes and had experience with a greater number of partners than females. Attitudes and experience were more highly related in females. Ss in the sex course were more permissive and experienced that Ss in the control course. The sexuality course appeared to have changed attitudes in both sexes, but changed behavior only in males, relative to changes in the control group. Religious attitudes and personality correlates of sexual attitudes and experience are reported; in general, sexual permissiveness and expression correlated with self-actualizing tendencies, particularly in females. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Love and sex role stereotypes: Do macho men and feminine women make better lovers?

Examined the relation of sex and sex-role orientation to self-reported feelings and behaviors of love. It was hypothesized that (a) sex role would have a greater effect on love feelings and behaviors than sex, and (b) androgynous individuals would experience love differently than sex-typed individuals. Data were gathered from 100 male and 136 female college students who identified themselves as being in a love relationship. Ss completed a battery of questionnaires, including the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Both hypotheses were supported. There were no sex differences in self-reported love. Androgynous Ss differed from masculine Ss on awareness of love feelings, expression of love, nonmaterial evidence of love, toleration of the loved one's faults, and the total expression of love in their relationship. The androgynous Ss differed from feminine Ss on awareness, willingness to express feelings, and toleration of faults. In all comparisons, androgynous Ss were more loving than sex-typed and undifferentiated Ss. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of sex guilt, repression, sexual "arousability," and sexual experience on female sexual arousal during erotica and fantasy.

Hypothesized that, among women who were asked to fantasize about sex, erotic preexposure would facilitate arousal during the fantasy, and arousal would be greater among those who had less sex guilt, those who were more arousable, those who were more experienced, and sensitizers. 62 female Ss (aged 18–53 yrs) were randomly assigned to view either an erotic or a nonerotic videotape. All Ss then imagined and wrote out a sexual fantasy. Sexual arousal was measured subjectively by self-report ratings and physiologically by continuous vaginal photoplethysmograph recording. Ss high in sex guilt reported less arousal but showed significantly greater physiological arousal during the erotic videotape than did Ss low in sex guilt. For the high sex-guilt Ss, the erotic videotape facilitated physiological arousal during fantasy. Ss low in sexual arousability and low in sexual experience followed a similar pattern. No significant differences were found for repression-sensitization. Results point toward a pattern of behavioral inhibition that facilitates increased response to forbidden erotica. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in parasite infections: patterns and processes

Sex differences in parasite infection rates, intensities, or population patterns are common in a wide range of taxa. These differences are usually attributed to 1 of 2 causes: (1) ecological (sociological in humans); and (2) physiological, usually hormonal in origin. Examples of the first cause include differential exposure to pathogens because of sex-specific behavior or morphology. The second cause may stem from the well-documented association between testosterone and the immune system; sexually mature male vertebrates are often more susceptible to infection and carry higher parasite burdens in the field. Although many researchers favor one explanation over the other, the requisite controlled experiments to rule out confounding variables are often neglected. We suggest that sex differences in disease have evolved just as sex differences in morphology and behavior, and are the result of selection acting differently on males and females. Research has often focused on proximate mechanistic explanations for the sex difference in infection rates, but it is equally important to understand the generality of the patterns in an evolutionary context. Because males potentially gain more than females by taking risks and engaging in competition, sexual selection pressure has shaped male behavior and appearance to maximize competitive ability and attractiveness. Many of the classic male attributes such as antlers on deer are testosterone-dependent, putting males in what appears to be a cruel bind: become vulnerable to disease by developing an attractive secondary sexual ornament, or risk lowered mating success by reducing it. A variety of hypotheses have been put forward to explain why males have not circumvented this dilemma. The mating system of the host species will influence the likelihood of sex differences in parasite infection, because males in monogamous species are subject to weaker sexual selection than males in polygynous species. Whether these evolutionary generalizations apply to invertebrates, which lack testosterone, remains to be seen.     

Beyond global sociosexual orientations: A more differentiated look at sociosexuality and its effects on courtship and romantic relationships.

Sociosexuality is usually assessed as the overall orientation toward uncommitted sex, although this global approach may mask unique contributions of different components. In a large online study (N = 2,708) and a detailed behavioral assessment of 283 young adults (both singles and couples) with a 1-year follow-up, the authors established 3 theoretically meaningful components of sociosexuality: past behavioral experiences, the attitude toward uncommitted sex, and sociosexual desire (all measured by a revised version of the Sociosexual Orientation Inventory). Discriminant validity was shown with regard to (a) their factorial structure, (b) sex differences, (c) many established correlates of sociosexuality, and (d) the prediction of observed flirting behavior when meeting an attractive opposite-sex stranger, even down to the level of objectively coded behaviors, as well as (e) the self-reported number of sexual partners and (f) changes in romantic relationship status over the following year. Within couples, the 3 components also showed distinct degrees of assortative mating and distinct effects on the romantic partner. Implications for the evolutionary psychology of mating tactics are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality and sexual relations.

Examined the relationship between self-monitoring propensities and orientations toward sexual relations among 116 female and 139 male undergraduates, who completed the Self-Monitoring Scale, questions pertaining to previous and anticipated overt sexual behavior, and attitudinal indices regarding sex without commitment and casual sex. Factor analysis revealed that high self-monitoring Ss tended to establish an unrestricted orientation toward sexual relations (e.g., having sex with others to whom they were not necessarily psychologically close), whereas low self-monitoring Ss tended to establish a restricted orientation (e.g., they would have sex only with partners to whom they were psychologically close). At the behavioral level, high relative to low self-monitoring Ss indicated that they had a larger number of different sexual partners within the preceding year, could foresee themselves having sex with a larger number of different partners within the next 5 yrs, and were more likely to have engaged in sex with someone on only 1 occasion. At the attitudinal level, low compared to high self-monitoring Ss indicated that they would be more reluctant to have sex with someone to whom they were not committed and that they would be more uncomfortable with, and less likely to enjoy engaging in, casual sex with different partners. Possible explanations for these contrasting orientations are discussed. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preferences in human mate selection.

Examined the consequences of mate preferences for the processes of assortative mating and sexual selection. In Study 1, 92 married couples (aged 18–40 yrs) completed measures such as the California Psychological Inventory, Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, and Personal Attributes Questionnaire. Data were used to identify (a) the mate characteristics that were consensually more and less desired, (b) the mate characteristics that showed strong sex differences in their preferred value, (c) the degree to which married couples were correlated in selection preferences, and (d) the relations between expressed preferences and the personality and background characteristics of obtained spouses. Marital preference factors included Religious, Kind/Considerate, Artistic/Intelligent, and Easygoing/Adaptable. Study 2, with 100 unmarried undergraduates, replicated the sex differences and consensual ordering of mate preferences found in Study 1, using a different methodology. Alternative hypotheses are presented to account for the replicated sex differences in preferences for attractiveness and earning potential. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in social behavior: Are the social role and evolutionary explanations compatible?

Examines the competing claims of 2 explanations of sex differences in social behavior: social role theory, and evolutionary psychology. The origin and scope of research on sex differences in social behavior are outlined, and the application of social role theory is discussed. Research that is based on modern sexual selection theory is described, and whether its findings can be explained by social role theory is considered. Findings associated with social role theory are weighted against evolutionary explanations. It is concluded that evolutionary theory accounts much better for the overall pattern of sex differences and for their origins. A coevolutionary approach is proposed to explain cross-cultural consistency in socialization patterns. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role stereotyping and reactions to depictions of stranger versus acquaintance rape.

Tested 2 hypotheses implicit in the sex-role socialization analysis of rape: that reactions to rape may be affected (a) by the situational context in which a rape is portrayed and (b) by individual differences in sex role stereotyping. 289 male and female college students were classified as either high or low in sex-role stereotyping. They were then randomly assigned to read 1 of 3 sexual depictions (mutually consenting intercourse, stranger rape, and acquaintance rape) and were asked to indicate their sexual arousal and perceptions of the depictions. Male Ss were also asked to indicate the likelihood of their committing rape if they could be assured that no one would know. Results indicate sexual arousal and perceptual differences in reactions to the acquaintance rape vs stranger rape, and as expected, these reactions were mediated by Ss' sex-role stereotyping. High sex-role stereotyping Ss showed sexual arousal patterns like those typically found with identified rapist populations. Of the male Ss, 44% showed some likelihood of raping. (57 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The evolution of human intrasexual competition: Tactics of mate attraction.

Darwin's theory of sexual selection suggests that individuals compete with members of their own sex for reproductively relevant resources held by members of the opposite sex. Four empirical studies were conducted to identify tactics of intrasexual mate competition and to test four evolution-based hypotheses. A preliminary study yielded a taxonomy of tactics. Study 1 used close-friend observers to report performance frequencies of 23 tactics to test the hypotheses. Study 2 replicated Study 1's results by using a different data source and subject population. Study 3 provided an independent test of the hypotheses in assessing the perceived effectiveness of each tactic for male and female actors. Although the basic hypotheses were supported across all three studies, there were several predictive failures and unanticipated findings. Discussion centers on the heuristic as well as predictive role of evolutionary theory, and on implications for other arenas of intrasexual competition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pornography and the sex offender: Patterns of previous exposure and arousal effects of pornographic stimuli.

Showed 63 male sex and 66 male criminal code offenders a series of 26 slides depicting different sexual behaviors. Ss were also interviewed about their past exposure to pornography. No differences were found between the 2 groups on the measure of rated overall sexual arousal to the slides. Numerous differences were found between the 2 groups in their past exposure to pornography: sex offenders generally experienced less frequent and milder exposure to pornography than did the criminal code offenders. Factor analyses of arousal ratings to the different slides identified several arousal factors and suggested possible differntial relations to type of sex offense. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The great struggles of life: Darwin and the emergence of evolutionary psychology.

Darwin envisioned a scientific revolution for psychology. His theories of natural and sexual selection identified two classes of struggles--the struggle for existence and the struggle for mates. The emergence of evolutionary psychology and related disciplines signals the fulfillment of Darwin's vision. Natural selection theory guides scientists to discover adaptations for survival. Sexual selection theory illuminates the sexual struggle, highlighting mate choice and same-sex competition adaptations. Theoretical developments since publication of On the Origin of Species identify important struggles unknown to Darwin, notably, within-families conflicts and conflict between the sexes. Evolutionary psychology synthesizes modern evolutionary biology and psychology to penetrate some of life's deep mysteries: Why do many struggles center around sex? Why is social conflict pervasive? And what are the mechanisms of mind that define human nature? (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A theory of erotic orientation development.

It has been proposed that the content of an individual's erotic fantasies and the erotic stimuli that are sexually arousing to an individual (i.e., an individual's erotic orientation) is the core psychological dimension underlying sexual orientation. Although considerable research has been conducted on the basic processes by which individuals acquire erotic stimuli, it has not been integrated into a theory of erotic orientation development. Previous research is reviewed in this article, and a theoretical model is offered. It is proposed that erotic orientation emerges from an interaction between sex drive development and social development during early adolescence. Hypotheses are presented concerning the effects of variations in the timing of sex drive development and in patterns of social bonding on sexual orientation, and data relevant to those hypotheses are examined. Finally, the proposed theory is compared to extant theories of the causes of homosexuality. (76 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)