When depression breeds contempt: Reassurance seeking, self-esteem, and rejection of depressed college students by their roommates.

To test J. C. Coyne's (1976) theory of depression, students' levels of depressive symptoms, reassurance seeking, and self-esteem were assessed at Time 1, and their same-gender roommates' apprasials of them were assessed 5 wks later. Mildly depressed students engaged in the type of reassurance seeking described by Coyne. Among men, but not women, mildly depressed Ss were rejected if they strongly sought reassurance and had low self-esteem but not if they did not seek reassurance or had high self-esteem. Although induction of depressed symptoms in roommates did occur, this contagion effect did not account for the depression-rejection relationship. The prediction that unsupportive, intolerant, or unempathic others would be particularly likely to respond with rejection to reassurance-seeking depressed Ss with low self-esteem received partial support. Implications for future work on the interpersonal aspects of depression are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of failure on the self-esteem of depressed and nondepressed subjects.

Hypothesized that depressed Ss would show greater negative change in self-esteem in response to failure than nondepressed Ss, and investigated the relationship between lability and stability in mood and susceptibility of self-esteem to failure. 24 depressed and 24 nondepressed Ss completed daily mood ratings for 1 wk. and were categorized into stabile and labile groups. Each S was given a puzzle-solving task on which a 25, 50, or 75% failure condition was possible. Before and after the task, each S completed a self-esteem measure. Differences between depressed and nondepressed, stabile and labile groups did not reach statistical significance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression-related cognitions: Antecedent or consequence?

Measured depression-related cognitions and self-esteem in 998 adults who were followed for 1 yr. Ss completed a battery of tests including the Subjective Probability Questionnaire, Personal Beliefs Inventory, and Multidimensional Multiattributional Causality Scale. 63 Ss were depressed at the time of assessment, 85 became depressed during the follow-up period, and 115 had a history of depression but were not depressed at the initial assessment. Results are generally consistent with the hypothesis that depression-related cognitions arise concomitantly with an episode of depression. The currently depressed Ss differed from nondepressed Ss as expected; however, Ss who were to become depressed during the course of the study did not differ from controls on the cognitive measures. In addition, depressive cognitions did not seem to be permanent residuals of an episode. Although the depression-related cognitions did not predict future depression, they did predict improvement; depressed Ss with more negative cognitions were significantly less likely to improve during the follow-up period. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vulnerable self-esteem and depressive symptoms: Prospective findings comparing three alternative conceptualizations.

Across diverse theoretical orientations, vulnerable self-esteem (SE) is thought to act as a diathesis for depression after life stress. In the present study, the roles of trait-level SE, low SE primed by depressed mood, and labile SE in prospectively predicting changes in depressive symptoms in a nonclinical sample (n?=?192) were examined. Results indicate that labile SE predicted increases in symptoms. Furthermore, a 3-way interaction (Labile SE?×?Academic Stress?×?Initial Depression) suggested that in Ss who were initially asymptomatic, lability made Ss differentially vulnerable to increases in depressive symptoms after stress. In contrast to labile SE, trait-level SE and priming of low SE were relatively weak predictors of changes in depressive symptoms and did not interact with stress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Manipulation of self-esteem as a determinant of mood of elated and depressed women.

Tested the theory that self-esteem is a determinant of elation-depression. Changes in self-esteem were induced by having Ss read positive or negative self-evaluative statements. 140 female college students were selected on the basis of extreme scores of characteristic elation and depression and on the basis of suggestibility and were assigned to 1 of 5 treatment or control groups. The induction of positive vs negative cognitions produced significant differences in elation-depression on multiple measures. Characteristically elated and depressed Ss were able to take on opposite mood states. This study suggests that a determinant of depression is evaluative self-statements, supports the utility of cognitive therapy for depressives, and demonstrates a potentially useful technique for inducing more appropriate self-evaluations. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

College students with physical disabilities: Myths and realities.

Examined (1) the affect concerning interaction between nondisabled (ND) college students and physically disabled (PD) students, (2) stereotyping by both ND and PD students, (3) aspects of the self-concepts of ND and PD students, (4) ND students' beliefs about these aspects of self-concept. 32 PD college students (aged 19–36 yrs) and 221 ND students served as Ss. Data from a battery of measures showed that ND Ss were less comfortable with PD peers than with able-bodied peers. PD Ss were equally comfortable with ND individuals and with those having the same disability as they did but were as uncomfortable as ND Ss with peers having a disability different from their own. When predicting the responses of others, ND Ss scored both able-bodied and PD peers lower on most dimensions of self-concept than the actual scores of these groups indicate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Similarity and uniqueness: The effects of attribute type, relevance, and individual differences in self-esteem and depression.

Predicted, on the basis of a self-validation perspective, that distortions in consensus estimates would vary as a function of attribute type (opinions [Os] vs abilities [As]), relevance of the attribute, and individual differences in self-esteem and depression. 189 undergraduates who had completed the Texas Social Behavior Inventory and the Beck Depression Inventory rated themselves on 7 O and A dimensions. Then they estimated the percentage of the other students who held each O/A position and rank-ordered the Os/As for personal relevance. Absolute and directional accuracy scores were computed (comparing estimated percentages with actual percentages in the sample), as well as false consensus effect (FCE) scores (comparing estimates of Ss holding and not holding a particular position). Ss overestimated consensus for their Os and low As but underestimated consensus for their high As. Although Ss exhibited a larger FCE on Os than As, there was a reliable FCE for both attributes. Relevance affected the magnitude of these biases. Higher opinion relevance was associated with increased accuracy, lower FCE scores, and smaller overestimates. Higher ability relevance was associated with decreased accuracy, greater overestimation on low As, and greater underestimation on high As. Low self-esteem and depressed Ss overestimated consensus on Os and underestimated consensus on As less than high self-esteem and nondepressed Ss. (51 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between self-esteem and response style.

Response preferences of 30 high, 30 middle, and 30 low self-esteem undergraduate Ss on the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII) were analyzed to examine relationships between sex, self-esteem, and response style. Based on discriminant analyses, significant results indicated that like and dislike preferences discriminated between self-esteem groups but not between sex groups. Ss of high and middle self-esteem groups responded more often with like preferences, while Ss of the low self-esteem group responded more often with dislike preferences across all sections of the SCII. Inspection of the Your Characteristics section revealed that high and middle self-esteem Ss attributed strengths to themselves more frequently than did low self-esteem Ss. Two-way ANOVAs of Ss' profile scores revealed significant self-esteem effects but not significant sex and interaction effects. Compared with test profiles of low self-esteem Ss, test profiles of high and middle self-esteem Ss exhibited greater differentiation and provided more helpful information regarding particular interests and occupational areas for further vocational exploration. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bulimia and binge eating in college women: A comparison of personality and behavioral characteristics.

Assessed 9 behavioral and personality characteristics—restraint, binge eating, high self-expectations, demand for approval, body attitude, assertion, dating, self-esteem, and depression—that have been implicated in studying the onset of bulimia. Ss were 30 women who fulfilled an operationalized definition of the DSM-III criteria for bulimia (bulimics), 22 women who reported binge eating 8 or more times per month but did not fulfill the criteria for bulimia (binge eaters), and 28 women who did not binge eat (controls). Ss completed measures that included the Beck Depression Inventory, a self-esteem index, and the short form of the Personality Attributes Questionnaire. In comparison to controls, bulimics were more depressed and had lower self-esteem, poorer body image, higher self-expectations, higher need for approval, greater restraint, and higher binge-eating scores. Binge eaters exhibited higher restraint and binge-eating scores than controls. Bulimics and binge eaters differed significantly on all but a few variables. Results suggest that treatment for bulimics should extend beyond the disturbed eating pattern and that the distinction between binge eating and bulimia is an important one. Some empirical support for the DSM-III definition of bulimia was found. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Symptom changes and self-esteem as correlates of positive conditioning of grooming in hospitalized psychotics.

Evaluated a behavior modification program aimed at improving grooming behaviors with regard to changes in self-esteem and ward behavior. 27 unselected, institutionalized psychotics were rated on a self-esteem interview scale and the Psychotic Reaction Profile (PRP) before and after experimental Ss (n = 14) received behavior modification. After treatment, experimental Ss displayed significantly higher scores on verbal expression of self-esteem, which related to feelings of attractiveness, and had significantly lower scores on the PRP Paranoid Belligerence scale than controls. Results suggest that improvement in affective states, particularly as reported by the patient, should be considered when implementing behavioral programs dealing with the performance of self-care and grooming behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive patterns in symptomatic and remitted unipolar major depression.

Examined maladaptive thinking in 11 endogenous and 13 nonendogenous, unipolar, nonpsychotic depressed 22–70 yr old female patients when symptomatic (Time 1) and, later, when clinically remitted (Time 2). As a control, 17 nondepressed Ss were tested at 2 times, as were 7 unremitted depressed Ss. Ss were administered a battery of scales, including the Beck Depression Inventory and the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression. Symptomatic depressed Ss had more dysfunctional attitudes, depressive attributional biases, and negative automatic thoughts than did controls, whereas the 2 symptomatic depressed groups did not differ with regard to thinking patterns. With remission, negative automatic thoughts equaled normal control values, although biased attitudes and attributions continued to persist in both endogenous and nonendogenous remitted groups. Attributional but not attitudinal biases correlated with several measures of chronicity, which suggested that attributional biases either result from long-term depressions or lead to greater time spent in depressive episodes. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neuropsychological impairment, depression, and Parkinson's disease.

Examined the nature of cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease (PD) and its relation to depression in 89 nondemented (mean age 69.35 yrs) and 19 demented (mean age 79.94 yrs) PD patients and 64 control Ss (mean age 66.44 yrs). PD Ss were significantly more depressed than controls on the Beck Depression Inventory and the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS). There were significant, negative associations between scores on the GDS and performance on 8 neuropsychological test variables. Both PD groups were significantly impaired on 7 neuropsychologial test variables, including measures of visuomotor, memory, and executive functions. The demented PD group was more impaired than the nondemented PD and control groups on 9 neuropsychological test variables. Cognitive impairments in the nondemented PD group were relatively subtle and not apparent on the Mini-Mental State Examination. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of consciousness-raising groups on measures of feminism, self-esteem, and social desirability.

34 female undergraduates in 2 consciousness-raising groups were objectively assessed to determine whether changes relating to self-reported profeminist attitudes and behaviors and relating to self-esteem and social desirability would occur. 22 Ss were randomly assigned to either a 16-hr marathon group format or a 2-hr, 8-wk time-spaced group format. 12 additional Ss who took objective measures at the same time as 1 of the 2 groups acted as no-treatment controls. All experimental Ss significantly shifted toward more self-reported profeminist attitudes and behaviors both at posttesting and at follow-up. Two personality measures did not reveal any lasting changes. When compared with each other, Ss in the 2 time formats did not evidence any significant differences. When compared with control Ss, time-spaced Ss reported significantly more profeminist behavioral changes and an increase in self-esteem. Marathon Ss were significantly different from controls on a profeminist attitude measure (Attitudes Toward Women Scale). The purpose for which consciousness-raising groups have been formed was empirically supported by desired changes reported by Ss in relation to more profeminist attitudes and behaviors. Whether participation in consciousness-raising groups produces increases in self-esteem and decreases in the need for social approval is in need of further assessment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conformity, veridicality, and self-esteem.

Prior to the application of group pressure to conform to an erroneous consensus in the Blake-Brehm procedure of counting auditory clicks, a control series was administered in the absence of social pressure to ascertain sheer counting accuracy in 2 groups of experimental Ss selected to differ in the degree of their measured self-esteem. Low self-esteem Ss were found to be significantly less accurate than high self-esteem Ss in counting accuracy under the nonsocial conditions. The results highlight the importance of controlling for competency in conformity research, particularly in studies utilizing such personality variables as self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Internal attributions and types of depression in college students: The learned helplessness model revisited.

Tested the relation between attributions and types of depression (with and without low self-esteem) postulated by reformulated learned helplessness theory vs. an alternative (R. Janoff-Bulman; see record 1981-01320-001). 334 Ss completed the Beck Depression Inventory, Attributional Style Questionnaire, and Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale. Scores above 8 on the Beck were considered depressed. A median split on the Janis-Field scale divided Ss into those with and without low self-esteem. Clearest support was found for Janoff-Bulman's formulations. Depressed Ss with low self-esteem made more internal characterological attributions for bad events than the other groups. Nondepressed Ss made more internal behavioral attributions than depressed Ss. The implications for counseling and future research on depression and learned helplessness are noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Why do people need self-esteem? Converging evidence that self-esteem serves an anxiety-buffering function.

Three studies were conducted to assess the proposition that self-esteem serves an anxiety-buffering function. In Study 1, it was hypothesized that raising self-esteem would reduce anxiety in response to vivid images of death. In support of this hypothesis, Ss who received positive personality feedback reported less anxiety in response to a video about death than did neutral feedback Ss. In Studies 2 and 3, it was hypothesized that increasing self-esteem would reduce anxiety among individuals anticipating painful shock. Consistent with this hypothesis, both success and positive personality feedback reduced Ss' physiological arousal in response to subsequent threat of shock. Thus, converging evidence of an anxiety-buffering function of self-esteem was obtained. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A relationship between self-esteem and persuasibility.

It was found that Ss high in self-esteem were influenced more by optimistic communications than by threatening communications, while Ss low in self-esteem showed the opposite pattern. These results occurred only among Ss who received communications from sources dissimilar to Ss with respect to personality characteristics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Body image, physical attractiveness, and depression.

224 17–63 yr olds completed measures of self-perceived physical attractiveness and depression, and static full-body videotapes of Ss were assessed by objective raters, to investigate the relationship between Ss' body image, rated physical attractiveness, and depression. Measures included the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), a body parts satisfaction scale, and a self-labeling depression scale. Ss were classified as depressed (n?=?35) or nondepressed (n?=?42) on the basis of conjunctive criteria of self-labeling and extreme groups on the CES-D. It was hypothesized that (1) depressed Ss would report being less satisfied with their body parts and physical appearance and would regard themselves as less physically attractive than would nondepressed Ss, (2) objective raters would perceive depressed Ss as less physically attractive than nondepressed Ss, and (3) depressed Ss would distort their degree of physical attractiveness and perceive themselves to be less attractive than objective raters regarded them. Results indicate that, as hypothesized, depressed Ss were less satisfied with their bodies and saw themselves as less physically attractive than nondepressed Ss. These groups did not differ with respect to observer-rated physical attractiveness. Support was obtained for A. T. Beck's (1973, 1976) cognitive hypothesis that depressed persons negatively distort their body images; however, results also indicate substantial positive distortion among nondepressed Ss. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dysfunctional attitudes and attribution style in healthy controls and patients with schizophrenia, psychotic depression, and nonpsychotic depression.

Compared the scores of 242 psychiatric inpatients with schizophrenia, psychotic depression, or nonpsychotic depression and 53 healthy controls on the Attribution Style Questionnaire (ASQ) and the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS). Results provide mixed support for the cognitive and learned helplessness models of depression. Depressed Ss scored significantly higher than healthy controls on the DAS and ASQ, but there were no differences between depressed and schizophrenic Ss. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aspects of the self-concept related to level of self-esteem.

Studied aspects of the phenomenal self-concept of 30 male Ss varying in self-esteem, using a numerical self-report approach. 10 Ss were from each of the 3 categories (high, medium, low) of the Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI). Numerical ratings of importance and salience of self-enumerated positive and negative characteristics were used to generate a series of scores. Significant differences were found on an overall self-esteem score, which correlated .59 with scores on the SEI. No significant differences were found on ratings of positive characteristics, while striking differences were noted for negative characteristics. Results suggest that it is how individuals experience negative rather than positive characteristics that plays a determining role in self-esteem. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)