Nonverbal Behavior and the Vertical Dimension of Social Relations: A Meta-Analysis.

The vertical dimension of interpersonal relations (relating to dominance, power, and status) was examined in association with nonverbal behaviors that included facial behavior, gaze, interpersonal distance, body movement, touch, vocal behaviors, posed encoding skill, and others. Results were separately summarized for people's beliefs (perceptions) about the relation of verticality to nonverbal behavior and for actual relations between verticality and nonverbal behavior. Beliefs/perceptions were stronger and much more prevalent than were actual verticality effects. Perceived and actual relations were positively correlated across behaviors. Heterogeneity was great, suggesting that verticality is not a psychologically uniform construct in regard to nonverbal behavior. Finally, comparison of the verticality effects to those that have been documented for gender in relation to nonverbal behavior revealed only a limited degree of parallelism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonverbal behaviors of "good" and "poor" counselors.

Determined whether skills involved in decoding of nonverbal behaviors are related to the clinical skills of the beginning counselor. Two groups of master's level counselor-trainees (N?=?24) served as Ss. One group was judged by the practicum supervisor as "good" (top 20%) and the other was judged as "poor" (bottom 20%) in interviewing skills. Each counselor conducted a 21-min videotaped interview with a client. The counselor's nonverbal behaviors were rated by the client (using the Behavior Rating Form) and were analyzed by 2 training judges on 4 dimensions of nonverbal behaviors. Decoding skills, as measured by a film test (the Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity), were compared between good and poor groups. Also, client- and judge-rated counselor nonverbal behaviors were compared with decoding skills. Results show no significant difference between good and poor counselors in nonverbal decoding abilities. Counselor nonverbal behaviors, as rated by judges, showed no significant correlations with decoding skills; however, client ratings were inversely related to nonverbal decoding skills. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Deciphering the physician-older patient interaction

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this article is to provide a commentary on non-verbal communication in the physician-older patient interaction. METHOD: A literature review of physician-older patient communication yielded several published studies on this topic. Nonverbal behaviors were rarely examined in this body of literature even though the need to adopt a more "biopsychosocial" model of care was mentioned in several of the articles. The nonverbal communication literature was also reviewed to determine whether aging had been a variable of interest with regard to encoding (sending) and decoding communication (receiving) skills. RESULTS: To date there have been very few studies that have investigated the role of nonverbal communication in the physician-older patient interaction. Selected encoding and decoding characteristics for both physicians and patients are discussed with the context of the aging process. In lieu of direct evidence linking nonverbal behavior and physician-older patient communication, possible implications are offered for the following characteristics: expression of emotion, pain expression, gestures, gaze, touch, hearing, and vocal affect. Three relevant outcomes (satisfaction with care, quality of life, and health status) are also discussed within the nonverbal behavior-aging framework. CONCLUSION: The connection between nonverbal behavior and how physicians and older patients interact with one another has not been rigorously examined. Identifying and improving nonverbal communication will likely enhance the verbal exchange in the medical encounter and may improve the older patient's quality of care.     

Cues and channels in emotion recognition.

Studied issues pertinent to judgment studies in nonverbal communication and to the perception and attribution of emotions by investigating which behavioral cues are used in portraying various emotions and to what extent presentation and encoding differences between actors affect judgment accuracy. The nonverbal behaviors of 6 trained actors (3 male, 3 female) portraying 4 emotions (joy, sadness, anger, and surprise) were analyzed from a videotape. These portrayals were shown using 4 channels of presentation (audio-video, video only, audio only, and filtered audio), to groups of naive judges (college students) to study decoding. Results indicate that different nonverbal cues are used to portray the various emotions and that differences between channels and between actors strongly affect decoding accuracy. Overemphasis of behavioral cues characteristic for certain emotions was found to result in reduced decoding accuracy. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control, interpersonal trust, and nonverbal communication accuracy.

Two measures of nonverbal sensitivity to facial cues, sensitivity to unknown others, and sensitivity to an intimate other, along with a measure of general sending accuracy, were obtained from 48 married couples (20–31 yrs old). Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale and the Rotter Trust Scale were administered. It was predicted that (a) internal Ss would demonstrate better nonverbal encoding and decoding skills, (b) high-trust Ss would be better able to decode the nonverbal cues of other, and (c) the combination of internality and high trust would be associated with the highest level of decoding abilities and that the combination of external and low trust would correlate with the lowest level of decoding abilities. Results show no relation between either control or trust expectancies and sending accuracy. Trust expectancies covaried with nonverbal receiving abilities for both men and women, with high trust being associated with increased sensitivity. Control expectancies covaried with general nonverbal receiving abilities differently for both men and women, with internal women scoring higher and internal low-trust men scoring lowest on these measures. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonverbal cues in the employment interview: Links between applicant qualities and interviewer judgments.

Investigated the role of nonverbal behavior in the employment interview inference process, using a modified Brunswik lens model. Job interviews for an actual research assistant position were conducted and videotaped with 34 candidates (aged 18–67 yrs). Job applicants' self-appraised motivation to work and social skill were assessed, and their nonverbal behaviors during the interview were scored. 18 judges with training and experience in employment interviewing watched the videotaped interviews and rated the Ss on their motivation, social skill, and hirability. Social skill was more accurately inferred by the judges as a group than was motivation to work. Ss' social skill was apparently transmitted to the judges via 3 nonverbal cues: rate of gesturing, time spent talking, and formality of dress. In contrast, there was a lack of correspondence between cues correlated with Ss' self-appraised motivation to work and those used by judges in making their attributions. Implications for employment interview training are discussed. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The functional relation between depression and problematic interpersonal behavior.

75 depressed patients (mean age 33.9 yrs) were compared with 69 nondepressed high MMPI controls (mean age 25.7 yrs) and 80 normal controls (mean age 29.9 yrs) on self-reported frequency and comfort of various interpersonal events, verbal and nonverbal behavior in group and dyadic interactions, and interpersonal style. Identified as uniquely associated with depression were (a) infrequent engagement, discomfort, and low levels of obtained reinforcement in social activity and in giving and receiving positive responses; (b) discomfort in being assertive and low levels of reinforcement obtained from such behavior; (c) discomfort experienced in conjunction with negative cognitions concerning personal interactions; and (d) self-, peer-, and observer-rated deficiencies in interpersonal style group interactions. On verbal and nonverbal behavior measures, no deficits uniquely associated with depression were identified. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral and cardiovascular responses to interpersonal challenges among male offspring of essential hypertensives.

Behavioral, cardiovascular, and self-report measures of cognitive and affective responses to 2 interpersonal challenges were examined among 20 men with a positive (FH+) and 20 with a negative (FH–) family history of hypertension. Heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP) were measured throughout the laboratory session; Ss were requested to self-report positive and negative conditions, state anger, and state anxiety that occurred during interactions with a male and female confederate. Behavioral responses to interpersonal tasks were videotaped, coded, and categorized into 4 major groupings (positive verbal, positive nonverbal, negative verbal, and negative nonverbal). FH+ individuals exhibited significantly higher resting HR and systolic BP reactivity to both interactions than FH– counterparts. Analyses of behavioral responses for both interactions revealed significantly more negative verbal and nonverbal behavior and less positive nonverbal behavior among FH+ as compared with FH– Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonverbal communication accuracy in married couples: Relationship with marital complaints.

48 recently married couples (aged 20–31 yrs) individually viewed and described their reactions to slides in 5 categories (e.g., sexual, scenic, and unpleasant); videotapes of their facial expressions were then shown to their spouses, who were asked to match the expressions to the appropriate picture categories. Ss also completed the Communication of Affect Receiving Ability Test. Based on social penetration theory, it was predicted that (1) couples cohabiting longer would be better at decoding their partners' nonverbal expressions than couples cohabiting a shorter time, (2) Ss married to accurate nonverbal communicators would evidence fewer marital complaints, and (3) Ss with fewer marital complaints would be better nonverbal communicators. Data suggest that nonverbal decoding abilities do not covary with relationship length, although spouses were better at decoding their partners' expression than were a panel of judges. Nonverbal sensitivity to one's spouse did not covary with marital complaints, although an internal analysis suggested that wives' ability to decode husbands' poorly encoded messages covaried negatively with both his and her complaints. Husbands married to wives who were good encoders had fewer complaints, whereas the reverse was true for the relationship between husbands' encoding abilities and wives' complaints. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The cognitive correlates of third-grade skill in arithmetic, algorithmic computation, and arithmetic word problems.

The purpose of this study was to examine the cognitive correlates of 3rd-grade skill in arithmetic, algorithmic computation, and arithmetic word problems. Third graders (N = 312) were measured on language, nonverbal problem solving, concept formation, processing speed, long-term memory, working memory, phonological decoding, and sight word efficiency as well as on arithmetic, algorithmic computation, and arithmetic word problems. Teacher ratings of inattentive behavior also were collected. Path analysis indicated that arithmetic was linked to algorithmic computation and to arithmetic word problems and that inattentive behavior independently predicted all 3 aspects of mathematics performance. Other independent predictors of arithmetic were phonological decoding and processing speed. Other independent predictors of arithmetic word problems were nonverbal problem solving, concept formation, sight word efficiency, and language. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Proxemic behavior as a function of inconsistent verbal and nonverbal messages.

An analog study with 40 male and 40 female undergraduates examined the effects of inconsistencies between a counselor's verbal and nonverbal behaviors on client proxemic behavior and ratings of counselor genuineness. Nonverbal behaviors included eye contact, trunk lean, body orientation, and leg positioning. Verbal content reflected either high or low levels of empathic understanding. Ss role-played a standard complaint with a confederate male counselor who communicated either contradictory or consistent verbal and nonverbal messages. Results indicate that inconsistent messages were associated with greater interpersonal distances, especially when the nonverbal messages were negative and the verbal messages were positive. Inconsistent messages also resulted in lower ratings of counselor genuineness. Results support the client-centered definition of congruence and further add to the evidence that spacing behavior is a direct reflection of one's interpersonal attraction. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teacher accuracy in decoding nonverbal indicants of comprehension and noncomprehension in Anglo- and Mexican-American children.

Examined the degree to which Anglo- and Mexican-American 1st-grade teachers can accurately decode nonverbal indicants of comprehension and noncomprehension in young children. 16 teachers from each group viewed silent videotapes (visual cues only) of 3 groups of 1st graders—Anglo-American, proficient bilingual, and limited English-speaking Mexican-American—while the children listened to an easy or difficult lesson on animal habitats. There were 24 boys and 24 girls, and 16 Ss in each linguistic grouping. The Ss estimated the students' level of understanding on the basis of their nonverbal responses. Degree of accuracy was assessed by comparing Ss' ratings of comprehension with the children's actual posttest comprehension scores. No differences in decoding accuracy between S groups were found. Ss perceived boys as understanding more than girls, particularly in the Anglo-American and limited English-speaking groups. Training raters improved overall decoding accuracy. Slight cultural differences were found in children's nonverbal behavior, but it did not appear that the behavior was misinterpreted by either group of Ss. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Integrating dispositions, signatures, and the interpersonal domain.

A person's behavior across situations can be characterized in terms of a mean level (disposition), a dispersion within the person around that mean level, and a stable organization to the pattern of dispersion (signature). The authors' goals were to examine the structure and stability of behavior, both at the level of behavioral dispositions and at the level of behavioral signatures. Participants completed event-contingent records of their social interactions over a 20-day period. Participants recorded their own social behavior (dominant, agreeable, submissive, quarrelsome) in 4 situations defined by the perceived social behavior of their primary interaction partners (agreeable-dominant, agreeable-submissive, quarrelsome- submissive, quarrelsome-dominant). Findings suggest that (a) once the normative influences of situations on behavior are removed, the remaining behavioral variation reflects both consistent cross-situational differences between individuals (dispositions) and consistent situational differences within individuals (signatures); (b) both dispositions and signatures display a 2-dimensional structure in adherence to the interpersonal circle; and (c) both dispositions and signatures constitute stable aspects of personality functioning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Decoding skills in nonverbal communication and perceived interviewer effectiveness.

Examined the relationship between decoding ability in nonverbal communication and characteristic verbal and nonverbal behavior of beginning counselors during interviews. There were 17 "good" decoders and 17 "poor" decoders who conducted short interviews with a client; the decoders were assessed by the Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity. Interviewer behavior was rated subjectively by the client as well as objectively by 2 trained observers who counted the occurrences of certain verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Comparison of good and poor decoders revealed no significant differences between groups on the 2 multivariate sets of ratings for clients and observers. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Why introverts can't always tell who likes them: Multitasking and nonverbal decoding.

Despite personality theories suggesting that extraversion correlates with social skill, most studies have not found a positive correlation between extraversion and nonverbal decoding. The authors propose that introverts are less able to multitask and thus are poorer at nonverbal decoding, but only when it is a secondary task. Prior research has uniformly extracted the nonverbal decoding from its multitasking context and, consequently, never tested this hypothesis. In Studies 1–3, introverts exhibited a nonverbal decoding deficit, relative to extraverts, but only when decoding was a secondary rather than a primary task within a multitasking context. In Study 4, extraversion was found to correlate with central executive efficiency (r?=?.42) but not with storage capacity (r?=?.04). These results are discussed in terms of arousal theories of extraversion and the role of catecholamines (dopamine and norepinephrine) in prefrontal function. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Situational determinants of assertive behaviors.

Administered 32 assertive situations that varied in social-interpersonal context to 60 male 21-67 yr old hospitalized psychiatric patients via role playing. Half of the role-played situations required the expression of negative (hostile) assertiveness, and the other half required positive (commendatory) assertive expression. Situational context was varied by having Ss respond to male and female interpersonal partners who were either familiar or unfamiliar to Ss. Responses were videotaped and rated on 5 measures of speech content and 7 measures of nonverbal behavior. Additionally, groups of high- and low-assertive patients were identified from the total sample using a behavioral measure of global assertiveness and a self-report instrument. Results indicate that interpersonal behavior in assertive situations varied as a function of social context. Further, high- and low-assertive Ss were differentiated on the basis of 9 of the 12 measures of interpersonal behavior. Support for a stimulus specific theory of assertive behaviors and implications for assertive training are discussed. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal and cross-sectional age effects in nonverbal decoding skill and style.

Administered a videotaped nonverbal discrepancy test to children 9–15 yrs old. The test measured (a) decoding accuracy—the extent to which Ss were able to identify affects (positivity and dominance) from video (facial and body) cues and audio (content filtered and random spliced) cues; (b) discrepancy accuracy—the extent to which Ss recognized the degree of discrepancy between audio and video cues; and (c) video primacy—the extent to which Ss were more influenced by video than by audio cues. Older Ss benefited more than younger ones from the effects of retesting in their accuracy at decoding discrepant cues, especially for discrepant facial cues. All Ss showed significantly less video primacy after retesting, and older Ss displayed a trend for less body primacy after retesting. Older Ss showed less video primacy than younger ones in decoding extremely discrepant (as compared to slightly discrepant) audio and video nonverbal cues. Thus, although older children performed better than younger children at most nonverbal decoding tasks, the advantages of age were especially great for the decoding of the more discrepant channels. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-monitoring and blood pressure.

Examined the association between self-monitoring (regulation and control of nonverbal and expressive behavior) and blood pressure (BP) among 594 municipal employees. For Ss not taking antihypertensive medication, scores on an acting/extraversion scale were mildly positively associated with resting BP among Whites in general, blue collar, clerical, and professional groups. Stronger positive correlations were obtained for attorneys and customer-service representatives. Results are contrasted with slightly negative associations for Blacks in general, 1st-level supervisors, and a group of previously studied union stewards. An interactive effect was also obtained between acting/extraversion and relative participation in work vs nonwork groups and activities; acting/extraversion and systolic BP were inversely related for Ss more active in extrawork groups. Differential consequences of greater or lesser interpersonal involvement and emotional regulation in different jobs are considered. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)