Ego strength and perceived competence as conformity variables.

The basic experimental model for the design of the present investigation was the work done by Asch testing the influence of the judgments of others on S's judgments. In this study judgments were made on the Galton bar. It was hypothesized that the degree to which a person yields to the pressure of others was related to ego strength and the degree to which S feels confident in his judgments. S's susceptibility to group pressure was found to be related to the latter, but not the former. From Psyc Abstracts 36:01:3GE69S. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social exchange in organizations: Perceived organizational support, leader–member exchange, and employee reciprocity.

Social exchange (P. Blau, 1964) and the norm of reciprocity (A. W. Gouldner, 1960) have been used to explain the relationship of perceived organizational support and leader–member exchange with employee attitudes and behavior. Recent empirical research suggests that individuals engage in different reciprocation efforts depending on the exchange partner (e.g., B. L. McNeely and B. M. Meglino; see record 1995-15542-001). The purpose of the present study was to further investigate these relationships by examining the relative contribution of indicators of employee–organization exchange and subordinate–supervisor exchange. Structural equation modeling was used to compare nested models. Results indicate that perceived organizational support is associated with organizational commitment, whereas leader–member exchange is associated with citizenship and in-role behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Subordinate's assigned level of discretion as a function of leader's personality and situational variables.

Investigated relationships between leader's dominance, attitude toward delegation, authoritarianism, subordinate's capacity (as a situational variable), and the level of discretion the leader assigns to the subordinate. 101 undergraduates in a personnel management course were given items from the Personality Research Form, California F Scale, and Leadership Opinion Questionnaire. S's dominance and the hypothetical subordinate's capacity were found to have significant relationships to the level of discretion assigned. S's attitude toward delegation and his authoritarianism were not significant factors. In contrast to recent leadership models, the interaction effects were not significant. Findings suggest that the interaction hypothesis proposed by these models cannot be generalized to all personality and situational variables without limitation. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Catecholamine secretion as a function of perceived coping self-efficacy.

Hypothesized that perceived coping self-efficacy mediates the effects of environmental events on catecholamine secretion. Differential levels of perceived self-efficacy were induced in 12 female phobic Ss, aged 19–40 yrs, through modeling. Their level of catecholamine secretion was then measured as they were presented with coping tasks in their high, medium, and low ranges of perceived self-efficacy. High perceived self-efficacy was accompanied by low levels of plasma epinephrine and norepinephrine during interaction with a phobic object, whereas moderate perceived self-inefficacy gave rise to substantial increases in plasma catecholamines. Both catecholamines dropped sharply when Ss declined tasks for which they judged themselves completely inefficacious. In contrast, dihydroxyphenyl-acetic acid was released maximally by mere apperception of task demands that Ss regarded as overwhelming their coping capabilities. After perceived self-efficacy was strengthened to the maximal level by S modeling, all of the tasks were performed without any differential catecholamine responses. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in interaction style as a product of perceived sex differences in competence.

Observed the interaction styles of 72 male and 72 female university students while they worked in 4-person, mixed-sex groups on a discussion task. In some groups, Ss were only given information about each other's names and gender. In this circumstance, males were perceived by themselves and other group members to be higher in competence than females. Males also engaged in a greater amount of active task behavior than females, who exhibited a greater amount of positive social behavior than males. In other groups, Ss' competency-based status was manipulated by providing false feedback that they were high or low relative to their group in intellectual and moral aptitude. High-status Ss were then perceived to be more competent and engaged in more active task and less positive social behavior than low status ones. In this condition, no sex differences were obtained on perceived competence or on active task or positive social behavior. Findings support the idea that the gender differences obtained in interaction when status was not specified were partially a function of Ss' belief that the sexes differ in competence. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of member and leader expectations on group outcome.

Effects of members' and leaders' expectations on group members' self-actualization and self-esteem gain were studied. The changes in self-actualization and self-esteem between experimental groups and a no-treatment comparison group also were assessed. Ss for experimental groups were 42 university students enrolled in an introductory group counseling course. All students participated twice weekly as members of a growth group (3 hrs/wk) for 25 sessions. 31 students from a different class served as a no-treatment group. Leaders for the experimental groups were 6 advanced graduate students in counseling psychology. Members and leaders were assigned randomly to groups on the basis of an expectation scale, with three types of member groups (high, moderate, low) being facilitated by high- and low-expectation leaders. Varying the level of group expectations did not significantly affect self-actualization gain but did affect self-esteem change. Significant differences were found also between the experimental and control groups on the dependent variables. Results are discussed, and future research on group leaders' expectations are recommended. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of member and leader expectations on group outcome.

Studied the effects of members' and leaders' expectations on group members' self-actualization and self-esteem gain. Changes in self-actualization and self-esteem between experimental groups and a no-treatment comparison group also were assessed. 42 undergraduates participated twice weekly as members of a growth group for 25 sessions, and 31 undergraduates served as a no-treatment group. Leaders were 6 graduate students in counseling psychology. A 3?×?2 factorial design with a single control group was utilized. Members and leaders were assigned randomly to groups on the basis of an expectation scale, with 3 types of member groups (high, moderate, low) being facilitated by high- and low-expectation leaders. Varying the level of group expectations did not significantly affect self-actualization gain but did affect self-esteem change. Significant differences were found also between the experimental and control groups on the dependent variables. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Feedback exchange in counseling groups: An analysis of message content and receiver acceptance as a function of leader versus member delivery, session, and valence.

36 university students and 27 community residents (all Ss aged 20–47 yrs) participated in 9 6-wk personal-growth groups led by 18 advanced doctoral students. 410 items of interpersonal feedback (both leader-to-member and member-to-member) were analyzed for message content quality and recipient acceptance. Findings indicate that leader feedback was generally of higher quality than member feedback but not more readily accepted. There was a significant tendency for feedback to be of higher quality and more accepted in later than in earlier sessions, but this tendency was not consistent across other conditions. The strongest effects were for valence, with positive feedback consistently more accepted than negative. Positive feedback consistently received higher ratings of message content quality than did negative feedback. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Diagnostic compliance in Rorschach interpretation as a function of group member status.

Investigated the influence of confederates' verbal evaluations of psychological test data on clinical psychology graduate students' evaluations. 30 clinical psychology graduate students rated 8 artificially constructed Rorschach protocols by means of a Q sort and a diagnosis checklist. One half of the Ss verbally rated the protocols after 3 confederates who posed as graduate students had purportedly rated them; the other half rated the protocols after 2 confederates who posed as graduate students and one as a PhD clinical psychologist had purportedly rated them. The confederates' evaluations varied from being not discrepant to highly discrepant with the actual diagnoses of the protocols. Ss' evaluations on both dependent measures were influenced by the confederates' prior evaluations, especially when the confederate was designated as having higher status. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Supervisor attraction as a function of level of supervisor skillfulness and supervisees' perceived similarity.

Used a laboratory analog study to investigate the effects of supervisor skillfulness and supervisor-supervisee attitude similarity on the attraction of the supervisee to the supervisor, using 29 graduate students in counseling. The similarity of the supervisee to the supervisor was varied by means of an attitude scale purportedly filled out by the supervisor. After the supervisees compared the bogus protocol with their own, each supervisee viewed a videotape of 1 of 2 simulated supervisory sessions showing the supervisor working at either a high or low level of skill with 2 supervisees. Results show a main effect of supervisor skillfulness on attraction, but did not show attraction to vary as a function of supervisor-supervisee attitude similarity. It is concluded that skillfulness was a primary determinant of attraction, but in contrast to previous findings, similarity did not exert a significant attraction effect; supervisor skillfulness appeared to eliminate the similarity-attraction effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reactions to unfavorable personal evaluations as a function of the evaluator's perceived adjustment.

"Pairs of Ss listened to two… persons… evaluate the personality of one member of the pair. One of the stimulus persons made derogatory remarks about the 'involved' member, the other was… noncommittal… . In one experimental condition the derogator was pre-identified as… maladjusted, the nonderogator as well-adjusted. In another condition the identifications were reversed." The hypothesis was supported that the combined information, maladjustment and derogation, summate for the bystander to produce a negative impression, but that for the involved S there is a tendency to cancel out hostility that would be arounsed by the derogation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Microanalysis of action and fear arousal as a function of differential levels of perceived self-efficacy.

Two experiments combining intergroup and intra-S designs tested the hypothesis that perceived self-efficacy (SE) operates as a cognitive mediator of coping behavior (CB) and fear arousal (FA). Differential levels of SE were induced in 20 snake- and spider-phobic Ss (aged 16–62 yrs) through enactive mastery or modeling, and their CB and FA were measured. In the next phase, SE was successively raised to designated levels within the same Ss, and their CB and FA were measured again. CB corresponded closely to instated SE, with higher levels of perceived SE being accompanied by greater performance attainments. The SE–action relationship was replicated across different modes of SE and behavioral dysfunctions, and in both intergroup and intra-S comparisons. The hypothesis that FA stems largely from perceived coping inefficacy also received support. Results of Exp II (12 Ss), which used cardiac acceleration and elevation in blood pressure as indicants of FA, further corroborate the generality of the relationship between perceived coping inefficacy and stress reactions. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dysphoria as a moderator of the relationship between perceived effort and perceived ability.

Although Heiderian logic (F. Heider, 1958) proposes an inverse relationship between ability and effort, research has uncovered dramatic individual differences in the judged relationship between the two. Some view ability and effort as positively related; others view them as negatively related. Study 1, with 64 undergraduates, explored dysphoria as a moderator of this relationship by gathering dysphoric and nondysphoric individuals' perceptions of their effort and ability on daily activities. Although ability and effort generally were positively related, dysphorics reported lower ability on high effort tasks. In Study 2, 84 undergraduate Ss rated their effort as high or low. Dysphorics discounted ability when effort was high; nondysphorics reported the greatest ability when they expended the greatest effort. Collectively, there was no support for an inverse relationship between ability and effort. However, dysphorics infer less ability than nondysphorics following high effort. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cooperation structure and the relationship of leader and member ability to group performance.

48 3-S groups of undergraduates with varying levels of creative ability among leaders and subordinates were required to carry out a creative verbal task while working under one form of cooperation structure. Each structure varied in the amount of 2 types of cooperation—collaboration and coordination. Collaboration reflects the degree to which group members have to work simultaneously with one another on each subtask. Coordination depends on the degree to which subtasks are arranged in an order of precedence. Both the form of cooperation and the level of group ability had a significant effect on group creativity. Groups with high ability leaders or subordinates were more productive than groups with low ability Ss; coordinated groups were superior to coacting groups, with collaborative groups being the least productive. There was a significant Leader Ability?×?Collaboration interaction because leader ability did not affect productivity in collaborative groups. Results are discussed in terms of the constraints placed on a leader's effectiveness by different group structures. Results also provide further evidence of the importance of group structure in determining productivity. (25) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation between teachers' early expectations and students' later perceived competence in physical education classes: Autonomy-supportive climate as a moderator.

The purpose of this study was to explore whether, in naturalistic physical education classes, the relation between teachers' early expectations and students' later perceived competence was moderated by the extent to which the motivational climate created by the teachers was autonomy supportive. Using a 1-year longitudinal design, data were obtained from 421 students and 22 teachers from 10 French junior high schools. Multilevel analyses revealed that (a) teachers' early expectations were related to students' later perceived competence, particularly when these expectations were positive, and (b) this relation was stronger when the classroom motivational climate was low in autonomy support. Implications for future research and educational practices are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of justice in team member satisfaction with the leader and attachment to the team.

This study examined the effects of team decision accuracy, team member decision influence, leader consideration behaviors, and justice perceptions on staff members' satisfaction with the leader and attachment to the team in hierarchical decision-making teams. The authors proposed that staff members' justice perceptions would mediate the relationship between (a) team decision accuracy, (b) the amount of influence a staff member has in the team leader's decision, and (c) the leader's consideration behaviors and staff attachment to the team and satisfaction with the leader. The results of an experiment involving 128 participants in a total of 64 teams, who made recommendations to a confederate acting as the team leader, generally support the proposed model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Meta-Analytic review of leader–member exchange theory: Correlates and construct issues.

The leader–member exchange (LMX) literature is reviewed using meta-analysis. Relationships between LMX and its correlates are examined, as are issues related to the LMX construct, including measurement and leader–member agreement. Results suggest significant relationships between LMX and job performance, satisfaction with supervision, overall satisfaction, commitment, role conflict, role clarity, member competence, and turnover intentions. The relationship between LMX and actual turnover was not significant. Leader and member LMX perceptions were only moderately related. Partial support was found for measurement instrument and perspective (i.e., leader vs. member) as moderators of the relationships between LMX and its correlates. Meta-analysis showed that the LMX7 (7-item LMX) measure has the soundest psychometric properties of all instruments and that LMX is congruent with numerous empirical relationships associated with transformational leadership. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality predictors of artistic preferences as a function of the emotional valence and perceived complexity of paintings.

This study explored associations among the Big Five personality factors, unconventionality, selected demographics, and preference for 4 distinct visual art genres (portraiture, abstract art, geometric art, and impressionism). In total, 3,254 participants completed an online survey assessing individual difference and preference ratings for different paintings. Participants were also asked to rate each observed painting for emotional liking and perceived complexity, which enabled examination of whether personality could predict artistic preferences when the latter was classified on the basis of consensual, rather than researcher-led or art historical, taxonomies. Correlations and structural equation models showed that the correlates and predictors of artistic preferences were stronger when art was classified using consensual ratings (particularly in the case of complex art) than according to researcher-led or art historical taxonomies. Although these findings are somewhat exploratory and more comprehensive measures of individual differences and art preferences could be employed, they suggest that trait-congruent classifications of aesthetic stimuli may improve prediction and understanding of individual differences in artistic preferences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's preference for challenge: The role of perceived competence and control.

This research tested the hypothesis that children's perceptions of academic competence and their personal control over school-related performance affect subsequent intrinsic interest and preference for challenge in an evaluative setting. In a correlational study, children's self-reported perceptions of academic competence and personal control were found to relate positively to their intrinsic interest in schoolwork and preference for challenging school activities. A subset of this sample was exposed to varying levels of a controlling directive, and preference for challenge was assessed behaviorally during a free-choice period in which subjects were unaware that they were being observed. As predicted, the data indicated that when given the evaluative, controlling directive, children who had high perceptions of academic competence and control preferred a greater challenge than did children whose perceptions were low on these measures. No difference between groups in terms of preference for challenge was evident when no controlling directive was presented. These findings are discussed in terms of theories of intrinsic motivation and potential processes that underly these effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)