Prebreakdown and breakdown phenomena under uniform field in liquid nitrogen and comparison with mineral oil

This paper presents a study of breakdown and prebreakdown phenomena (streamers) in liquid nitrogen and mineral oil under quasi uniform electric field, under ac and impulse voltage. Streamers preceding breakdown are studied up to 0.5 MPa by high-speed visualization and recording of emitted light. In these conditions, breakdown in LN/sub 2/ is mainly due to negative streamers, initiated at lower voltage than the corresponding positive voltage. Hydrostatic pressure has a limited effect on breakdown voltage, such as in mineral oil. It is shown that the ratio of impulse to ac breakdown voltage in LN/sub 2/ is surprisingly low (close to 1), whereas in the same conditions ac breakdown voltage in mineral oil is lower than impulse breakdown voltage. Practical consequences for the design of HV insulation in superconducting systems are discussed.     

Area and volume effects on breakdown strength in liquid nitrogen

We measured dc and ac breakdown voltages in liquid nitrogen (LN ₂) with a sphere-to-plane electrode configuration. Experimental results revealed that the breakdown voltage in LN₂ did not increase monotonously but partially decreased as the sphere diameter increased at a constant gap length. Thus, the existence of the area and the volume effects on the breakdown voltage in LN₂ was verified quantitatively; the breakdown strength decreased when increasing the {SEA}₉₀ (90% stressed electrode area) and the {SLV}₉₀ (90% stressed liquid volume). By changing the experimental conditions, it was verified that both area and volume effects, having a mutual correlation, simultaneously lead to the degradation of the breakdown strength in LN₂. In order to examine the area and the volume effects for the larger {SEA}₉₀ and {SLV}₉₀, we also measured the breakdown voltage with a coaxial cylindrical electrode. It was concluded that the dc and ac breakdown strengths in LN₂ decreased as the {SEA}₉₀ and the {SLV}₉₀ increased varying widely from 10⁰ to 10⁵ mm² and from 10 ^-1 to 10⁵ mm³, respectively     

Electrical insulation characteristics of cold dielectric high temperature superconducting cable

For the optimization of electrical insulation design for high temperature superconducting (HTS) cable, evaluation of electrical insulation characteristics especially for butt gap of LN/sub 2/ impregnated cold dielectric (CD) which consists of the wrapped tape insulation impregnated with LN/sub 2/ plays an important role. This paper presents partial discharge (PD) inception and breakdown characteristics in LN/sub 2/ impregnated butt gap model which modeled a weak point of the wrapped tape insulation impregnated with LN/sub 2/ and cable model with short length with polypropylene laminated paper (PPLP/sup /spl reg//), Nomex/sup /spl reg// paper and cellulose paper. PD current pulse was found to have a steep rise time of /spl sim/ ns and amplitude of /spl sim/ tens /spl mu/A at PD inception voltage region. Little dependency of breakdown stress on the insulating material is found. PD inception stress is almost independent of insulation thickness of 1 to 3 mm. The requirement insulation thickness for 66 kV class HTS cable is estimated to be /spl sim/ 5 mm under PD-free condition from viewpoint of long-term reliability.     

高压短脉冲作用下岩石击穿特性的实验研究

为了开发脉冲等离子体钻机,开展了高压短脉冲作用下岩石击穿的实验研究。以去离子水为工作介质,将不同种类和不同厚度的岩石放置于尖板电极间,通过加载不同大小的电压于岩石上,考察了岩石的电击穿概率与平均电场强度的关系。实验结果发现:7%空隙率的黄砂岩电击穿场强为70kV/cm;0.8%空隙率的白大理岩电击穿场强为160kV/cm。岩石孔隙率的大小对电击穿场强影响显著,孔隙率越大,电击穿场强越小。岩石厚度对电击穿场强也有一定影响,电击穿场强随厚度增加而减少。     

高温超导电缆及其低温绝缘研究现状

概述了世界上高温超导电缆的研究历史和现状,介绍了高温超导电缆本体的基本结构及绝缘要求,分析了高温超导电缆主绝缘的结构及存在的问题。针对高温超导电缆中使用的液氮和几种低温固体绝缘材料,分别介绍了其在低温环境下介电性能的相关研究进展。总结发现：液氮的击穿场强受到气泡和电极材料的影响;液氮下绝缘材料的直流击穿场强高于交流击穿场强;聚酰亚胺在液氮下的交直流击穿场强高于聚丙烯层压纸;低温会抑制环氧树脂中电树枝的生长。     

Imaging breakdown spots in SiO/sub 2/ films and MOS devices with a conductive atomic force microscope

Conductive atomic force microscopy (C-AFM) was used to study the dielectric breakdown of SiO/sub 2/ layers at a nanometric scale. First, bare oxide regions were stressed and broken down using the tip as the metal electrode of a MOS structure. The results show that the initial breakdown is electrically propagated to neighbor regions, affecting their dielectric strength. Moreover, the area affected by the initial breakdown depends on the breakdown hardness. In particular, it is shown that this area is smaller when the current through the structure is limited during the experiments. The effect of the current limitation is analyzed in detail. Based on the results, a qualitative picture of the breakdown process is presented, which accounts for this effect. Finally, for the first time, the breakdown spots in standard MOS devices (with poly-Si gate) are electrically imaged with C-AFM. The areas of the observed spots are in agreement with those obtained on bare oxides.     

Breakdown mechanism of liquid nitrogen viewed from area and volumeeffects

We investigated the area and volume effects on the breakdown strength in liquid nitrogen (LN₂) to discuss the breakdown mechanism in cryogenic liquids for superconducting power apparatus. We measured breakdown voltages in LN₂ with and without thermal bubbles over a very wide range of the electrode size. Experimental results revealed that the breakdown mechanism changed from an area dominant to volume effective region at larger electrode configurations in LN₂. Moreover, we discussed the contribution rate of area and volume effects to the breakdown strength in LN₂. It was suggested that a mutual contribution of area and volume effects appeared in breakdown characteristics in LN₂ under thermal bubble conditions, as a phenomenon peculiar to cryogenic liquids. Consequently, we pointed out that it is very important to consider both thermal bubbles and electrode surface condition for HV insulation of superconducting power apparatus     

Weibull statistical analysis of area and volume effects on thebreakdown strength in liquid nitrogen

In order to examine the area and the volume effects on breakdown strength in liquid nitrogen (LN₂), we measured dc and ac breakdown voltages in LN₂ with sphere to plane and coaxial cylindrical electrode configurations. We also carried out statistical analysis of the experimental results using the Weibull distribution and discussed with the statistical stressed electrode area (SSEA) and/or liquid volume (SSLV). The dc and ac breakdown strength in LN₂ decreased to 1/5 with increasing SSEA and SSLV over the wide range from 10⁰to 10⁵ mm² and from 10^-1 to 10⁵ mm³, respectively. The Weibull shape parameter m for the sphere to plane and the coaxial cylindrical electrodes was estimated to be 6 to 8 and 11 to 13, respectively; the breakdown strength in LN₂ saturated with increasing SSEA and SSLV. From these results, it was verified that the area and the volume effects definitely determined the breakdown strength in LN₂. The results of the Weibull statistics were compared with the conventional concept of the stressed electrode area (SEA) and liquid volume (SLV). Consequently, SSEA or SSLV was found to be nearly equal to 80 to 85% of SEA or SLV     

Charge trapping and breakdown mechanism in HfAlO/TaN gate stack analyzed using carrier separation

Charge trapping and breakdown mechanism in p- and n-channel MOSFETs with an HfAl/sub x/O/sub y/ and TaN metal electrode are investigated. Using carrier separation measurement technique, it is possible to clearly distinguish two different breakdown mechanisms: a high-K bulk initiated and an interfacial layer initiated breakdown. A model of charge trapping at different spatial locations in HfAl/sub x/O/sub y/ with a TaN gate structure is proposed to explain the polarity dependence of charge trapping characteristics and breakdown mechanisms.     

Automatic breakdown voltage measurement of polymer films

Determining the breakdown strength of dielectric films is tedious, as the breakdown strength at 1% breakdown probability is more relevant to system insulation design than the Weibull characteristic breakdown strength, and obtaining reasonable confidence limits at 1% breakdown probability requires very large numbers of breakdowns. An automatic system for DC ramp breakdown strength measurements has been reported [1]. This system comprises a HV-probe and a movable arm equipped with an electrode holder that scans over the sample surface. One problem with this approach is that the metal electrodes are damaged by the breakdowns which, based on the author's experience, results in occasional low breakdowns that can distort the statistical distribution. To avoid this problem, a breakdown tester that can carry out breakdown strength measurements automatically utilizing metalized film electrodes has been developed. In this system, metalized films are used as electrodes and renewed after each breakdown. This is accomplished using a mechanical assembly under computer control through a LabView interface. By utilizing metalized films and renewing them after each breakdown, the system does not suffer from breakdown-induced electrode damage. To evaluate the system, we carried out 100 breakdowns with three active areas varying from 2 cm2 to 20 cm2. The breakdown data were analyzed using a Weibull distribution, agreed well with previous data obtained manually, and scaled properly as a function of area based on a Weibull distribution [2]. We have carried out over 600 breakdowns automatically, which is sufficient to provide very good data at low probability of breakdown. The development of the automatic breakdown strength tester provides a means to evaluate polymer films at low breakdown probability which is relevant to insulation design.     

均匀电场重频脉冲作用下的水中气泡击穿

均匀电场重频脉冲作用下处理室放电问题是高压脉冲电场(pulsed electric field,PEF)技术遇到的难题.目前现有水中空气泡的击穿研究无法说明这种平均电场强度较低(＜70kV/cm)的情况下的击穿现象.为了解决这一问题,设计了金属平板电极与水溶液电极间的气体击穿实验,利用等效实验研究了有水溶液电极的大气压...     

Sulphur hexafluoride-A complex dielectric

Some of the factors that must be taken into account in designing with SF₆ are discussed. These factors include the effect of field inhomogeneities on the electrode which reduce the dielectric strength in SF₆ and the effect of SF₆ decomposition byproducts on the materials used in SF₆-insulated systems. Homogeneous and inhomogeneous field breakdown are discussed, and typical causes of failure in SF₆-insulated systems are examined. Many oversimplifications are used in the discussion, mainly to avoid having to define precisely the circumstances to which the assertions apply. In general, the system under consideration has been designed for a 30-year life, as is typical for a utility apparatus     

蒸发冷却介质两相流状态下工频击穿特性的实验研究

一些不燃型氟碳化合物具有非常好的绝缘特性,既可以作为蒸发冷却变压器等电气设备的冷却介质,也可以作为绝缘介质,使得蒸发冷却变压器不燃不爆、安全可靠、经济高效、绿色环保、成本适中,适用于某些特定场合的需求。在作为绝缘介质实际运行过程中,氟碳化合物将以气液两相流状态存在。为研究该工况下介质的绝缘性能,本文参考国家标准研制了实验装置,测量了若干种氟碳化合物介质在两相流状态下的工频击穿电压特性。实验采用3mm间隙的板-板电极,得到了不同工作压力下的工频击穿实验数据,以及击穿电压与工作压力的经验公式。实验结果的统计分析显示两相流状态下工频击穿数据很好地服从于威布尔分布和正态分布,通过计算得到了各工作压力点下击穿电压值的概率分布函数,为蒸发冷却变压器绝缘结构的设计提供了参考。     

Electrode conditioning characteristics in vacuum under impulse voltage application in nonuniform electric field

In this paper, we quantitatively investigated the impulse conditioning mechanism under nonuniform electric field electrodes in a vacuum. A negative standard lightning impulse voltage was applied between rod and plane electrodes whose materials were Cu-Cr, stainless steel and Cu and the gap lengths were d=5 and 10 mm, respectively. Experimental results revealed the transition of the breakdown (BD) sport region on the rod electrode and the corresponding BD field strength in the conditioning process. As a result, we found that the BD spot region started at the tip of the rod electrode and moved to the wider region of the rod electrode with lower electric field as the shots of the voltage application increased before the saturation of the BD voltage. Finally, by analyzing the results with an electric field strength, we propose that "the conditioning degree" along the electrode surface distributed directly proportional to the electric field distribution under a nonuniform electric field in a vacuum, irrespective of the electrode materials     

Discussion of electrode conditioning mechanism based on pre‐breakdown current under nonuniform electric field in vacuum

Electrode conditioning is a very important technique for improvement of the insulation performance of vacuum circuit breakers (VCBs). This paper discusses the spark conditioning mechanism under a nonuniform electric field, focusing on the pre‐breakdown current. We quantitatively evaluated the spark conditioning effect by analyzing the pre‐breakdown current based on the Fowler‐Nordheim equation. The field enhancement factor β was found to decrease with increasing breakdown voltage at the beginning of the conditioning process, and finally became saturated with the saturation of the breakdown voltage. In addition, in the case of a nonuniform field, we found that β on a high‐voltage rod electrode after conditioning varied according to the electric field strength on the rod electrode. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Electr Eng Jpn, 175(2): 21‐28, 2011; Published online in Wiley Online Library ( wileyonlinelibrary.com ). DOI 10.1002/eej.21059     

Area dependence of breakdown strength of polymer films: automatic measurement method

An automatic method for determining the breakdown strength of thin polymer films was evaluated. The equipment consists of a scanning electrode arm with which the breakdown voltage over the film sample is measured. The measurement electrodes were of solid brass and the ground electrode was of thin aluminum foil. Five different electrode areas between 0.045 and 9.3 cm² were used and 40-100 individual measurements per electrode area per sample were performed. All measurements were performed in air. The Weibull function parameters alpha and beta were fitted to the obtained data. Different features concerning the measurement system and conditions, e.g. the criteria for the automatic detection of the breakdowns, the effect of the electrode edge design, the DC ramp speed, partial discharges and humidity were analyzed. In order to control the reproducibility of the results, also another type of measurement setup was tested. It was concluded that the measured alpha-parameter values were stable and repeatable over a period of several years. The average beta-parameter values varied plusmn10-30%, more for the large than the small electrodes, and were also sensitive to changes in the sample, in the measurement conditions and the choice of the electrode system     

运动水滴在球──球直流电场中的放电研究

研究了运动水滴在球－球直流电场中的放电现象,对于含有水滴的电场分布进行了计算,水滴的引入使得水滴外表面的场强跃变为无水时场强的３倍左右,从而水滴在电场中会在较低的电压下诱发电晕,比较了正负极性电压下起晕现象。为水处理技术中的混合两相体放电问题提供了依据。     

Electrical breakdown triggered by a free conducting spherical particle in saturated liquid He I and He II under uniform dc field

This paper is concerned with the pre-breakdown phenomena and the breakdown voltage characteristics, in the presence of a free moving conducting spherical particle, of saturated normal liquid helium (He I) and saturated superfluid liquid helium (He II) under uniform dc field. Experiments show that the particle lifts off around the theoretical value of the lift-off electric field, and the particle oscillates between the electrodes at higher applied voltages. In that case, the microdischarge appears just before the charged particle collides with the oppositely charged electrode, and the bubble is generated at the moment of every collision of the particle with the electrode. It is confirmed theoretically as well as experimentally that the maximum bubble radius in He II is nearly proportional to the E/sub in//sup 1/3/, which is the released energy from the particle for the bubble generation. The insulation environment before the electrical breakdown suddenly changes at the /spl lambda/-point since the bubble behavior in He I and He II greatly differs. In the characteristics of the breakdown voltage vs. liquid pressure, a clear discontinuity appears at the /spl lambda/-point. Furthermore, the breakdown voltage in the parallel plane gap contaminated by a particle is lower than that in the rod-plane gap without a particle. It is found that the breakdown voltage characteristics are closely related to the trigger effect of the microdischarge and the bubble generation.     

Partial discharge inception characteristics under butt gap condition in liquid nitrogen/ PPLP/sup /spl reg// composite insulation system for high temperature superconducting cable

The partial discharge (PD) inception characteristics are studied in liquid nitrogen (LN/sub 2/)/polypropylene laminated paper (PPLP/sup /spl reg//) composite insulation system for high temperature superconducting (HTS) cable. Experimental results revealed that the magnitude of the initial PD increased as the PD inception electric field strength was increased, because the injected energy increased. Initial PD was generated at the first and third quadrant of applied AC voltage phase. The probability of initial PD at the positive and negative voltage phase was almost the same. The reason is because liquid nitrogen is a nonpolar molecule and we used symmetric electrode configuration with uniform electric field distribution. Finally, it was pointed out that PD inception electric field strength (PDIE) depended on the volume of the butt gap because of the increasing probability of weak points of electrical insulation, and PDIE linearly decreased with increasing stressed volume of the butt gap in the log-log scale.     

Switching of capacitive currents and the correlation of restrike and pre-ignition behavior

The new IEC 62271-100 requires an extensive proof of the capability of capacitive switching for a breaker under test. For vacuum circuit breakers, dielectric properties are mainly determined by the condition and topology of the contact surfaces, which are modified by in-rush currents as well as load-breaking currents and other effects. A synthetic single-phase test device has been erected in order to simulate three-phase network conditions and to collect more data on the statistical properties of the relevant processes. The distribution of pre-ignition field strengths is evaluated for different contact strokes and surface conditions, when discharging a capacitor through the closing interrupter. On the other side, the probability of restrikes for a given switching condition defined by full contact gap d/sub 0/ and peak recovery voltage U/sub re//spl circ/ is measured and compared with the cumulative probability of pre-ignition just at the field strength E=U/sub re//spl circ//d/sub 0/. A correlation between pre-ignition and restrike probabilities suggests a breakdown mechanism being field-emission dominated. In addition a rather strong conditioning effect has been observed at smaller contact gaps smoothening the contact surfaces.